维甲酸与精子发生

维生素A的活性代谢物维甲酸在哺乳动物精子发生过程中发挥着重要的调节作用,但其具体调节机制并不十分清楚。该文拟对睾丸内维甲酸的运输、代谢、信号系统以及维甲酸调控精子发生的研究进展进行简单总结。     

哺乳动物精子发生中减数分裂的起始

生殖细胞的发生、增殖和分化是生命科学领域研究的重要课题之一. 生殖是所有动物赖以生存的基础,精子发生是完成繁殖所必须经历的过程,其最终目的是源源不断地产生单倍体精子.精子发生过程本身是一个复杂特殊的细胞增殖与分化过程,其中减数分裂是精子发生最重要的步骤,但关于减数分裂如何精确起始的分子机制仍知之甚少.已有报道发现,维甲酸（RA）调控Stra8可能是哺乳动物减数分裂起始的机制之一,Nanos2、Boule对RA-Stra8通路具有重要的调控作用. 本文对哺乳动物精子发生中减数分裂起始的相关研究进展进行综述.     

高原鼢鼠精子发生的形态学特征和关键调控因子探究

季节性繁殖是动物在长期进化中为适应环境变化而形成的生活史特征,受光周期和下丘脑-垂体-性腺轴的严密调控。高原鼢鼠（Eospalax baileyi）是青藏高原特有的地下啮齿类动物,其繁殖活动表现出明显的季节性。然而,地下啮齿类动物精子发生的形态特征和关键调控因子尚不明确。本研究以成年高原鼢鼠为研究对象,发现繁殖期成年雄性睾丸曲精小管内有各级生殖细胞,附睾内有长形精子,生精上皮可分为10个期;而非繁殖期睾丸重量显著下降,曲精小管内仅见精原细胞和支持细胞。激素水平检测结果显示,与非繁殖期相比,繁殖期褪黑素水平显著降低（P < 0.05）,促性腺激素释放激素、促黄体生成素和睾酮水平显著升高（P < 0.05）,而卵泡刺激素水平无显著差异。进一步研究发现,精原细胞分化的关键诱导因子维甲酸水平和其调控基因表达均呈季节性变化,且外源维甲酸注射能够诱导非繁殖期高原鼢鼠重启精子发生。综上,高原鼢鼠虽为地下动物,但其精子发生与下丘脑-垂体-性腺轴激素水平明显相关,且受睾酮和维甲酸信号的调控。本研究首次揭示了高原鼢鼠精子发生的形态学特征和关键调控因子,为理解季节性繁殖动物尤其是地下啮齿类动物生殖生理的调控机制提供了重要参考。     

维甲酸诱导精原干细胞分化过程中DNA甲基转移酶表达研究

精原干细胞(spermatogonial stem cells,SSCs)是雄性哺乳动物体内能进行自我更新并通过精子发生将亲代遗传信息传递给子代的一类细胞。多项研究表明,维甲酸(retinoic acid,RA)可诱导SSCs分化,启动减数分裂。目前,关于维甲酸诱导SSCs体外分化的分子机制已取得一定进展,但此过程的DNA甲基化调控机制尚未探索。DNA甲基转移酶(DNA methyltransferases,Dnmts)催化DNA甲基化,研究SSCs分化前后Dnmts的表达变化将有助于本研究从表观遗传层面理解维甲酸诱导的SSCs分化过程。因此,在本研究中,首先通过两步酶消化法和免疫磁珠法从小鼠睾丸组织中分离纯化SSCs并建立细胞系。该细胞系在体外传代超过60代,并且表达Oct4、Plzf、Etv5、Dazl和Mvh等标志物。然后,本研究通过探索维甲酸诱导条件,建立了SSCs的体外分化体系。经维甲酸处理后,对SSCs自我更新起决定作用的转录因子Plzf及其共表达基因Oct4的表达下降,而分化相关基因(Stra8,c-Kit)表达上调。最后,本研究对SSCs分化前后Dnmts表达进行检测。检测显示与正常组SSCs比较,维甲酸处理组SSCs中Dnmt1、Dnmt3a表达下调。该发现初步表明Dnmt1、Dnmt3a在维甲酸诱导SSCs体外分化过程中起调控作用,为阐述维甲酸如何诱导SSCs分化的分子机制提供了新的证据。     

Polycomb基因家族在大鼠精子发生过程中的表达

目的检测大鼠精子发生不同阶段细胞中Polycomb-group（Pc-G）家族在mRNA水平上表达是否有差异。方法提纯大鼠精子发生过程中的精原细胞、精母细胞、圆形精子细胞以及支持细胞,用荧光定量PCR方法检测Pc-G家族基因mRNA表达量。结果Pc-G基因家族中Ezh2、Eed、Bmi-1在精子发生中后期高表达;在各生精细胞中,YY1基因表达量低于支持细胞。结论Pc-G基因家族在精子发生各阶段细胞中特征性表达,与精子发生具有相关性,可能对精子发生分化和维持遗传稳定性都有重要的作用。     

精子发生过程中相关酶及蛋白因子的功能

精子发生经历了复杂的细胞分化过程,该过程受许多因素的调控,诸多因素中,生精细胞内一些酶和蛋白因子与精子发生密切相关.近年来随着蛋白离子交换柱层析、免疫印迹、免疫定位荧光和双相凝胶电泳等蛋白鉴定技术方法的发展和应用,发现了许多与精子发生相关的酶与蛋白因子.这些酶与蛋白因子,有些是在精子发生的多个阶段有不同程度的表达,有些呈现严格的阶段性特异表达,在精子发生过程中都发挥了重要作用.对这些酶和蛋白因子在精子发生过程中的功能作用进行综述.有助于进一步了解精子发生过程的调控机制.     

精子发生过程中的相关基因

在哺乳动物精子发生过程中, 原生殖细胞发育成为精原细胞, 再发育为精母细胞, 精母细胞经过两次减数分裂成为圆形精细胞, 这些圆形精细胞经过细胞变态形成精子。精子发生过程经历了复杂的细胞分化阶段, 这一阶段受许多因素的调控作用, 其中生精细胞内的基因调节起着决定作用。精子发生中的重要基因与一系列精子发生过程中阶段性的细胞事件密切相关, 例如减数分裂重组、联会丝复合物的形成、姊妹染色体的结合、减数分裂后精子的变态以及减数分裂周期中的关键点和必需因子等。生精细胞许多特异基因的阶段特异性表达, 参与了精子发生这一特殊的细胞分化过程。近年来随着基因克隆、表达和功能研究技术的发展和应用, 发现了许多与精子发生相关的基因, 而且有的被证明在精子发生过程中具有重要作用。文章较全面综述了这一研究领域的一些进展, 着重讨论了与精子发生相关的周期蛋白基因、原癌基因、无精子因子基因、细胞骨架基因、热休克基因、核蛋白转型基因、中心体蛋白基因和细胞凋亡相关基因等。     

精子发生过程中翻译后修饰的蛋白质组学研究进展

精子发生由一系列多阶段、复杂的生物学事件所组成,受到多因素的调控。精子发生过程存在翻译延迟的现象,因此转录和蛋白表达水平变化不完全一致。蛋白质的翻译后修饰作为蛋白质功能的重要调控方式,在精子发生过程中起着重要调控作用。近年来,蛋白质组学(proteomics)的发展促进了蛋白质翻译后修饰的解析和功能研究。本文综述了精子发生过程中多种翻译后修饰的蛋白质组学研究进展,并讨论了它们在精子发生、精子功能和男性生育能力中的作用以及它们在未来临床诊疗中的价值。     

大鼠睾丸生精小管上皮精子发生周期的PAS法判定

精子发生是一个包含生殖细胞成熟分裂的连续、复杂的动态过程,不同的生精小管,或同一生精小管不同区段的生精细胞的组合、分布均不相同。本文应用PAS染色法观察了大鼠睾丸生精小管上皮中各级生精细胞在精子发生过程的形态学变化特点。参照Clermont及Russell等制定的生精上皮时相的判定标准,根据生精上皮在精子发生过程中的各级生精细胞组合分布特点,把生精上皮分为ⅩⅣ个期。通过观察精子发生过程中生精上皮细胞组合的周期性形态变化特点,对精子发生过程进行精确划分,把精子发生这一连续、复杂的动态过程静止化,具体化,可以更加准确地描述和比较不同影响因素对生精小管上皮中各级生精细胞的组织学、病理学、毒理学变化。     

精子发生过程中蛋白质翻译后修饰的研究进展

精子发生是一个高度复杂且受到精密调控的生物学过程,其中蛋白质作为生命活动的最终执行者,其翻译后修饰发挥着重要的调控作用。精子发生过程中存在多种蛋白质翻译后修饰,如磷酸化、乙酰化、泛素化等,其异常可引起精子发生障碍,严重的甚至可导致不育。随着蛋白质组学技术的快速发展,基于临床不育样本和模式动物的功能研究,可以系统性解析精子发生过程中蛋白质翻译后修饰的动态调节与功能,揭示精子发生的分子调控机制以及男性不育的发病机理。该文就近年来精子发生过程中蛋白质翻译后修饰调控机制,以及少精子症、弱精子症和畸形精子症等临床疾病中蛋白质翻译后修饰的研究进展进行了综述。     

Inhibition of Retinoic Acid Biosynthesis by the Bisdichloroacetyldiamine WIN 18,446 Markedly Suppresses Spermatogenesis and Alters Retinoid Metabolism in Mice

Knowledge of the regulation of testicular retinoic acid synthesis is crucial for understanding its role in spermatogenesis. Bisdichloroacetyldiamines strongly inhibit spermatogenesis. We reported previously that one of these compounds, WIN 18,446, potently inhibited spermatogenesis in rabbits by inhibiting retinoic acid synthesis. To understand how WIN 18,446 inhibits retinoic acid synthesis, we characterized its effects on human retinal dehydrogenase ALDH1A2 in vitro as well as its effects on retinoid metabolism in vivo using mice. WIN 18,446 strongly and irreversibly inhibited ALDH1A2 in vitro. In vivo, WIN 18,446 treatment completely abolished spermatogenesis after 4 weeks of treatment and modestly reduced adiposity in mice fed a chow diet. Effects of WIN 18,446 on retinoid concentrations were tissue-dependent. Although lung and liver retinyl ester concentrations were lower in WIN 18,446-treated animals, adipose retinyl ester levels were increased following the treatment. Interestingly, animals treated with WIN 18,446 had significantly higher circulating retinol concentrations compared with control mice. The effect on spermatogenesis by WIN 18,446 was not prevented by simultaneous treatment with retinoic acid, whereas effects on other tissues were partially or completely reversed. Cessation of WIN 18,446 treatment for 4 weeks reversed most retinoid-related phenotypes except for inhibition of spermatogenesis. Our data suggest that WIN 18,446 may be a useful model of systemic acquired retinoic acid deficiency. Given the effects observed in our study, inhibition of retinoic acid biosynthesis may have relevance for the treatment of obesity and in the development of novel male contraceptives.     

Impairment of spermatogenesis and enhancement of testicular germ cell apoptosis induced by exogenous all-trans-retinoic acid in adult lizard Podarcis sicula

In mammals, retinoic acid is involved in the regulation of testicular function by interaction with two families of nuclear receptors, retinoic acid receptor (RAR) and retinoid X receptor (RXR). Among RAR isoforms, the testicular cells of the lizard were found to express only RARalpha (3.7 kb) and RARbeta (3.4 kb) mRNAs, as reported here. In this study, the effects of exogenous all-trans-retinoic acid (atRA) on spermatogenesis of a non-mammalian seasonal reproducer were investigated. Daily intraperitoneal injections of atRA or atRA plus testosterone (atRA+T) were given for 2 weeks to adult males of the lizard Podarcis sicula. In animals treated with atRA, the seminiferous tubules were markedly reduced in cross-area. The seminiferous epithelium collapse was responsible for a sensible reduction in the number of germ cells and disruption in normal epithelial organization. In comparison, in atRA+T-treated lizards the loss of germinal cells was significantly less. The loss of germ cells observed in both experimental groups results from an induction of apoptotic process, as revealed by TUNEL analysis. Although low in number, apoptotic germ cells were also observed in the control groups (saline- and T-treated lizard), where the main germ cells undergoing apoptosis are primary spermatocytes (most frequently) and some spermatogonia.In conclusion, it is shown here that retinoic acid has deleterious effects on lizard spermatogenesis, causing a severe depletion of seminiferous epithelium, probably via induction of apoptotic processes. These effects are not completely inhibited by simultaneous administration of testosterone, although this hormone, once injected, is able to stimulate spermatogenesis and protect germinal cells from apoptotic cell death.     

Etinoic acid (vitamin A acid) induces spermatogenesis in adult mouse cryptorchid testes in vitro

Artificially-induced cryptorchid testes of adult mice were cultured $\text{in}\text{vitro}$ in order to study the effects of retinoic acid, a compound considered to be a biochemically inactive in mammalian reporductive function, on testicular germ cell differentiation, especially that of type A spermatogonia. Retinoic acid activated cell division in type A spermatogonia. and stimulate them to differentiate. It is suggested that retinoic acid might play an essential role in the control of early stages in spermatogenesis.     

Expression of Mirlet7 family microRNAs in response to retinoic acid-induced spermatogonial differentiation in mice

Spermatogonial differentiation is orchestrated by the precise control of gene expression involving retinoic acid signaling. MicroRNAs have emerged as important regulators of spermatogenesis, and here we show that the Mirlet7 family miRNAs are expressed in mouse spermatogonia and spermatocytes. Retinoic acid significantly leads to the induction of Mirlet7 miRNAs through suppression of Lin28. We further confirmed both in vitro and in vivo that expressions of Mycn, Ccnd1, and Col1a2, which are targets of Mirlet7, were downregulated during spermatogonial differentiation. These results suggest that Mirlet7 family miRNAs play a role in retinoic acid-induced spermatogonial differentiation.     

Recent insights on the role and regulation of retinoic acid signaling during epicardial development

The vitamin A metabolite, retinoic acid, carries out essential and conserved roles in vertebrate heart development. Retinoic acid signals via retinoic acid receptors (RAR)/retinoid X receptors (RXRs) heterodimers to induce the expression of genes that control cell fate specification, proliferation, and differentiation. Alterations in retinoic acid levels are often associated with congenital heart defects. Therefore, embryonic levels of retinoic acid need to be carefully regulated through the activity of enzymes, binding proteins and transporters involved in vitamin A metabolism. Here, we review evidence of the complex mechanisms that control the fetal uptake and synthesis of retinoic acid from vitamin A precursors. Next, we highlight recent evidence of the role of retinoic acid in orchestrating myocardial compact zone growth and coronary vascular development.     

Enzymology of retinoic acid biosynthesis and degradation: Thematic Review Series: Fat-Soluble Vitamins: Vitamin A

All-trans-retinoic acid is a biologically active derivative of vitamin A that regulates numerous physiological processes. The concentration of retinoic acid in the cells is tightly regulated, but the exact mechanisms responsible for this regulation are not completely understood, largely because the enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of retinoic acid have not been fully defined. Recent studies using in vitro and in vivo models suggest that several members of the short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase superfamily of proteins are essential for retinoic acid biosynthesis and the maintenance of retinoic acid homeostasis. However, the exact roles of some of these recently identified enzymes are yet to be characterized. The properties of the known contributors to retinoid metabolism have now been better defined and allow for more detailed understanding of their interactions with retinoid-binding proteins and other retinoid enzymes. At the same time, further studies are needed to clarify the interactions between the cytoplasmic and membrane-bound proteins involved in the processing of hydrophobic retinoid metabolites. This review summarizes current knowledge about the roles of various biosynthetic and catabolic enzymes in the regulation of retinoic acid homeostasis and outlines the remaining questions in the field.