Bim is reversibly phosphorylated but plays a limited role in paclitaxel cytotoxicity of breast cancer cell lines

The chemotherapeutic drug, paclitaxel, induces mitotic arrest and then activates the cellular apoptotic program. Although paclitaxel has been in clinical use for over 10 years for the treatment of breast, ovarian, and lung cancer, the molecular mechanisms of paclitaxel-induced cytotoxicity are ill defined. We decided to investigate the regulatory mechanism of the pro-apoptotic BH3-only protein Bim, which is known to play a role in paclitaxel cytotoxicity. We discovered that paclitaxel induces reversible phosphorylation of Bim. Bim initially displays enhanced phosphorylation during paclitaxel-induced mitotic arrest, and then undergoes de-phosphorylation as cells become apoptotic. This dynamic phosphorylation is dependent on mitotic checkpoint signaling. However, while these results suggest that reversible phosphorylation of Bim may contribute to the transmission of a mitotic checkpoint-to-apoptosis signal, we did not observe a strong correlation between Bim protein levels and cellular sensitivity to paclitaxel. Indeed, in contrast to the well-defined role of Bim in paclitaxel-induced cell death in mouse model cells, our depletion studies demonstrate that Bim is not absolutely required for paclitaxel cytotoxicity in breast cancer cell lines. Clearly it is imperative to define the contribution of Bim in paclitaxel-induced apoptosis of clinically relevant targets in order to rationally develop enhanced treatment strategies.     

Development of a method to evaluate caspase-3 activity in a single cell using a nanoneedle and a fluorescent probe

A method to detect an enzymatic reaction in a single living cell using an atomic force microscope equipped with an ultra-thin needle (a nanoneedle) and a fluorescent probe molecule was developed. The nanoneedle enables the low-invasive delivery of molecules attached onto its surface directly into a single cell. We hypothesized that an enzymatic reaction in a cell could be profiled by monitoring a probe immobilized on a nanoneedle introduced into the cell. In this study, a new probe substrate (NHGcas546) for caspase-3 activity based on fluorescent resonance energy transfer (FRET) was constructed and fixed on a nanoneedle. The NHGcas546-modified nanoneedle was inserted into apoptotic cells, in which caspase-3 is activated after apoptosis induction, and a change in the emission spectrum of the immobilized probe could be observed on the surface of the nanoneedle. Thus, we have developed a successful practical method for detecting a biological phenomenon in a single cell. We call the method MOlecular MEter with Nanoneedle Technology (MOMENT).     

Molecular analysis of functional redundancy among anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 proteins and its role in cancer cell survival

Bcl-2 family proteins act as essential regulators and mediators of intrinsic apoptosis. Several lines of evidence suggest that the anti-apoptotic members of the family, including Bcl-2, Bcl-xL and Mcl-1, exhibit functional redundancy. However, the current evidence is largely indirect, and based mainly on pharmacological data using small-molecule inhibitors. In order to study compensation and redundancy of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 proteins at the molecular level, we used a combined knockdown/overexpression strategy to essentially replace the function of one member with another. The results show that HeLa cells are strictly dependent on Mcl-1 for survival and correspondingly refractory to the Bcl-2/Bcl-xL inhibitor ABT-263, and remain resistant to ABT-263 in the context of Bcl-xL overexpression because endogenous Mcl-1 continues to provide the primary guardian role. However, if Mcl-1 is knocked down in the context of Bcl-xL overexpression, the cells become Bcl-xL-dependent and sensitive to ABT-263. We also show that Bcl-xL compensates for loss of Mcl-1 by sequestration of two key pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 family members, Bak and Bim, normally bound to Mcl-1, and that Bim is essential for cell death induced by Mcl-1 knockdown. To our knowledge, this is the first example where cell death induced by loss of Mcl-1 was rescued by the silencing of a single BH3-only Bcl-2 family member. In colon carcinoma cell lines, Bcl-xL and Mcl-1 also play compensatory roles, and Mcl-1 knockdown sensitizes cells to ABT-263. The results, obtained employing a novel strategy of combining knockdown and overexpression, provide unique molecular insight into the mechanisms of compensation by pro-survival Bcl-2 family proteins.     

Activity of nicotinic acid substituted nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NAADP) analogs in a human cell line: Difference in specificity between human and sea urchin NAADP receptors

Nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NAADP) is the most potent Ca²⁺ mobilizing second messenger that has been identified. We have previously shown that NAADP analogs substituted at the 5-position of nicotinic acid were recognized by the sea urchin receptor at low concentration, whereas the 4- substituted analogs were not as potent. However, to date the structure–activity relationship (SAR) of these analogs has not been addressed in mammalian systems. Thus, we asked whether these structurally modified analogs behave similarly in an NAADP-responsive mammalian cell line (SKBR3) using microinjection and single cell fluorescent imaging methods. Novel “caged” 4- and 5-substituted NAADP analogs that were activated inside the cell by flash photolysis resulted in Ca²⁺ mobilizing activity in SKBR3 cells in a concentration dependent manner, but with reduced effectiveness compared to unmodified NAADP. The SAR in mammalian SKBR3 cells was quite different from that of sea urchin and may suggest that there are differences between NAADP receptors in different species or tissues. Importantly, these data indicate that modifications at the 4- and 5-position of the nicotinic acid ring may lead to the development of functional photoaffinity labels that could be used for receptor localization and isolation in mammalian systems.     

Distinct apoptotic blocks mediate resistance to panHER inhibitors in HER2+ breast cancer cells

Despite the development of novel targeted therapies, de novo or acquired chemoresistance remains a significant factor for treatment failure in breast cancer therapeutics. Neratinib and dacomitinib are irreversible panHER inhibitors, which block their autophosphorylation and downstream signaling. Moreover, neratinib and dacomitinib have been shown to activate cell death in HER2-overexpressing cell lines. Here we showed that increased MCL1 and decreased BIM and PUMA mediated resistance to neratinib in ZR-75-30 and SKBR3 cells while increased BCL-XL and BCL-2 and decreased BIM and PUMA promoted neratinib resistance in BT474 cells. Cells were also cross-resistant to dacomitinib. BH3 profiles of HER2+ breast cancer cells efficiently predicted antiapoptotic protein dependence and development of resistance to panHER inhibitors. Reactivation of ERK1/2 was primarily responsible for acquired resistance in SKBR3 and ZR-75-30 cells. Adding specific ERK1/2 inhibitor SCH772984 to neratinib or dacomitinib led to increased apoptotic response in neratinib-resistant SKBR3 and ZR-75-30 cells, but we did not detect a similar response in neratinib-resistant BT474 cells. Accordingly, suppression of BCL-2/BCL-XL by ABT-737 was required in addition to ERK1/2 inhibition for neratinib- or dacomitinib-induced apoptosis in neratinib-resistant BT474 cells. Our results showed that different mitochondrial apoptotic blocks mediated acquired panHER inhibitor resistance in HER2+ breast cancer cell lines as well as highlighted the potential of BH3 profiling assay in prediction of panHER inhibitor resistance in breast cancer cells.     

Molecular mechanism of 'mitocan'-induced apoptosis in cancer cells epitomizes the multiple roles of reactive oxygen species and Bcl-2 family proteins

Mitochondria have emerged recently as effective targets for novel anti-cancer drugs referred to as 'mitocans'. We propose that the molecular mechanism of induction of apoptosis by mitocans, as exemplified by the drug alpha-tocopheryl succinate, involves generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS then mediate the formation of disufide bridges between cytosolic Bax monomers, resulting in the formation of mitochondrial outer membrane channels. ROS also cause oxidation of cardiolipin, triggering the release of cytochrome c and its translocation via the activated Bax channels. This model may provide a general mechanism for the action of inducers of apoptosis and anticancer drugs, mitocans, targeting mitochondria via ROS production.     

Development of a high-performance liquid chromatographic method for the determination of 11-keto-β-boswellic acid in human plasma

A validated HPLC method for the determination of 11-keto-β-boswellic acid (KBA) in human plasma was developed. The method involves the solid-phase extraction of KBA from plasma followed by a separation with reversed-phase HPLC. Calibration was based on external standardisation and ranged between 0.1 and 2.0 μg KBA per ml plasma. Linearity was established over the entire calibration range and in each case the coefficient of correlation (r²) was above 0.99. The recovery of KBA from plasma was 85.7%. It was further demonstrated that the method can be applied successfully to monitor the level of KBA in plasma.     

Bcl-2 regulation of the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor and calcium signaling in normal and malignant lymphocytes: Potential new target for cancer treatment

The anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 is a versatile regulator of cell survival. Its interactions with its own pro-apoptotic family members are widely recognized for their role in promoting the survival of cancer cells. These interactions are thus being targeted for cancer treatment. Less widely recognized is the interaction of Bcl-2 with the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor (InsP₃R), an InsP₃-gated Ca^2 + channel located on the endoplasmic reticulum. The nature of this interaction, the mechanism by which it controls Ca^2 + release from the ER, its role in T-cell development and survival, and the possibility of targeting it as a novel cancer treatment strategy are summarized in this review. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Calcium signaling in health and disease. Guest Editors: Geert Bultynck, Jacques Haiech, Claus W. Heizmann, Joachim Krebs, and Marc Moreau.     

A rapid and sensitive method for determination of covalent binding of benzo[a]pyrene to proteins

A method is presented for the quantitative determination of covalent binding of metabolically activated benzo[a]pyrene to microsomal proteins. After incubation of radiolabelled benzo[a]pyrene with microsomes and NADPH, the mixture is applied to filter paper discs. These are immersed in ethanol to precipitate the proteins. Unbound radiolabel is removed by repeated washes of the filters in organic solvents before scintillation counting. The method is simple, rapid, sensitive and accurate, and works both with 14C- and 3H-labelled compounds. The method is suitable for measuring the incorporation of other radiolabelled xenobiotics to proteins of both microsomes and other subcellular fractions and for the analysis of binding to isolated proteins.     

A new method for detection of tumor driver‐dependent changes of protein sialylation in a colon cancer cell line reveals nectin‐3 as TGFBR2 target

Protein‐linked glycans play key roles in cell differentiation, cell–cell interactions, cell growth, adhesion and immune response. Aberrant glycosylation is a characteristic feature of tumor cells and is involved in tumor growth, escape from apoptosis, metastasis formation, and resistance to therapy. It can serve as cancer biomarker and treatment target. To enable comprehensive screening for the impact of tumor driving mutations in colorectal cancer cells we present a method for specific analysis of tumor driver‐induced glycome changes. The strategy is based on a combination of three technologies, that is recombinase‐mediated cassette exchange (RMCE), Click‐It chemistry and mass spectrometry. The new method is exemplified by the analysis of the impact of inactivating mutations of the TGF‐ß‐receptor type II (TGFBR2) on sialic acid incorporation into protein‐linked glycans of the colon cancer cell line HCT116. Overall, 70 proteins were found to show de novo sialic acid incorporation exclusively upon TGFBR2 expression whereas 7 proteins lost sialylation upon TGFBR2 reconstitution. Validation of detected candidate glycoproteins is demonstrated with the cell surface glycoprotein nectin‐3 known to be involved in metastasis, invasion and prognosis of various cancers. Altogether, our new approach can help to systematically puzzle out the influence of tumor‐specific mutations in a major signaling pathway, as exemplified by the TGFBR2 tumor suppressor, on the tumor glycome. It facilitates the identification of glycan‐based tumor markers that could be used for diagnostic and therapeutic applications. In principle the outlined strategy can be adapted to any cancer cell line, tumor driver mutation and several glycan‐building blocks.     

A flow injection chemiluminescence method for the determination of lincomycin in serum using a diperiodato-cuprate (III)-luminol system

In this paper, the novel trivalent copper–periodate complex {K₅[Cu(HIO₆)₂], DPC} has been applied in a luminol‐based chemiluminescence (CL) reaction. Coupled with flow injection (FI) technology, the FI‐CL method was proposed for the determination of lincomycin hydrochloride. The CL reaction between luminol and DPC occurred in an alkaline medium. The CL intensity could be greatly enhanced by lincomycin hydrochloride. The relative CL intensity was proportional to the concentration of lincomycin hydrochloride in the range of 1 × 10^?8 to 5 × 10^?6 g mL^?1 and the detection limit was at the 3.5 × 10^?9 g mL^?1 level. The relative standard deviation at 5 × 10^?8 g mL^?1 was 1.7% (n = 9). The sensitive method was successfully applied to the direct determination of lincomycin hydrochloride (ng mL^?1) in serum. A possible mechanism of the lumonol–DPC CL reaction was discussed by the study of the CL kinetic characteristics and the spectra of CL reaction. The oxidability of DPC was studied by means of its electrochemical response. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Dual method for the determination of peroxidase activity and total peroxides-iodide leads to a significant increase of peroxidase activity in human sera

Peroxidases are very important enzymes, e.g., as preventive antioxidants by removing noxious peroxides from the blood. For this reason we evaluated a colorimetric method which detects the activity of endogenous peroxidases by their reaction with hydrogen peroxide, using tetramethylbenzidine as the chromogenic substrate. This assay design can be easily reversed by change of the variable compound to measure also total peroxides in plasma or serum. An increased total antioxidant status was reported previously by the addition of iodide to human serum. In this study iodide activated the endogenous peroxidases significantly in comparison to control sera and isomolar NaCl as well as horseradish peroxidase. Corresponding to the increased peroxidase activity a concomitant decrease of total peroxides occurred in the same samples. This exchangeable assay design is a beneficial opportunity to screen total peroxide levels as well as peroxidase activity in human sera without time-consuming preparations. The method proved to be simple and is favorable due to its specificity, reproducibility, and low costs. Moreover, we were able to find an explanation for the increased total antioxidant status in the presence of iodide, which is presumably an indirect protective effect via an enhanced activity of enzymatic antioxidants, thereby reducing endogenous peroxides.     

Development and validation of a nylon6 nanofibers mat-based SPE coupled with HPLC method for the determination of docetaxel in rabbit plasma and its application to the relative bioavailability study

A simple and sensitive HPLC method was established and validated for the determination of docetaxel (DTX) in rabbit plasma. Biosamples were spiked with paclitaxel (PCX) as an internal standard (I.S.) and pre-treated by solid-phase extraction (SPE). The SPE procedure followed a simple protein digestion was based on nylon6 electrospun nanofibers mats as sorbents. Under optimized conditions, target analytes in 500 μL of plasma sample can be completely extracted by only 2.5 mg nylon6 nanofibers mat and eluted by 100 μL solvent. The HPLC separation was obtained on C18 column and UV detector was used to quantify the target analytes. The extraction recovery was more than 85%; the standard curve was linear over the validated concentrations range of 10–5000 ng/mL and the limit of detection was 2 ng/mL. The inter-day coefficient of variation (CV%) of the calibration standards was below 5.0% and the mean accuracy was in the range of 92.8–113.4%. Moreover, analysing quality control plasma samples in 3 days, the results showed that the method was precise and accurate, for the intra- and inter-day CV% within 10% and the accuracy from 96.0% to 114.0%. The developed and validated method was successfully applied to relative bioavailability study for the preclinical evaluation of a new injectable DTX–sulfobutyl ether beta-cyclodextrin (DTX–SBE-β-CD) inclusion complex freeze-dried powder (test preparation), compared with the reference preparation (DTX injection, Taxotere^®) in healthy rabbits. On the basis of the mean AUC(0–t) and AUC(0–infinity), the relative bioavailability of the test preparation was found to be 113.1%.     

The pattern of glycosyl- and sulfotransferase activities in cancer cell lines: a predictor of individual cancer-associated distinct carbohydrate structures for the structural identification of signature glycans

Carbohydrate chains of cancer glycoprotein antigens contain major outer changes dictated by tissue-specific regulation of glycosyltransferase genes, the availability of sugar nucleotides, and competition between enzymes for acceptor intermediates during glycan elongation. However, it is evident from recent studies with recombinant mucin probes that the final glycosylation profiles of mucin glycoproteins are mainly determined by the cellular repertoire of glycosyltransferases. Hence, we examined various cancer cell lines for the levels of fucosyl-, beta-galactosyl, beta-N-acetylgalactosaminyl-, sialyl-, and sulfotransferase activities that generate the outer ends of the oligosaccharide chains. We have identified glycosyltransferases activities at the levels that would give rise to O-glycan chains as reported by others in breast cancer cell lines, T47D, ZR75-1, MCF-7, and MDA-MB-231. Most breast cancer cells express Gal-3-O-sulfotransferase specific for T-hapten Gal beta1-->3GalNAc alpha-, whereas the enzyme from colon cancer cells exhibits a vast preference for the Gal beta1,4GlcNAc terminal unit in O-glycans. We also studied ovarian cancer cells SW626 and PA-1 and hepatic cancer cells HepG2. Our studies show that alpha1,2-L-fucosyl-T, alpha(2,3) sialyl-T, and 3-O-Sulfo-T capable of acting on the mucin core 2 tetrasaccharide, Gal beta1,4GlcNAc beta1,6(Gal beta1,3)GalNAc alpha-, can also act on the Globo H antigen backbone, Gal beta1,3GalNAc beta1,3Gal alpha-, suggesting the existence of unique carbohydrate moieties in certain cancer-associated glycolipids. Briefly, our study indicates the following: (i) 3'-Sulfo-T-hapten has an apparent relationship to the tumorigenic potential of breast cancer cells; (ii) the 3'-sulfo Lewis(x), the 3-O-sulfo-Globo unit, and the 3-fucosylchitobiose core could be uniquely associated with colon cancer cells; (iii) synthesis of a polylactosamine chain and T-hapten are favorable in ovarian cancer cells due to negligible sialyltransferase activities; and (iv) a 6'-sialyl LacNAc unit and 3'-sialyl T-hapten appear to be prevalent structures in hepatic cancer cell glycans. Thus, it is apparent that different cancer cells are expressing unique glycan epitopes, which could be novel targets for cancer diagnosis and treatment.     

Simplified method for the determination of 25-hydroxy and 1α,25-dihydroxy metabolites of vitamins D2 and D3 in human plasma application to nutritional studies

A simplified method for the determination of 25-hydroxy and 1α,25-dihydroxy metabolites of vitamins D₂ and D₃ in human plasma was developed. Plasma samples were deproteinizated and applied to a Bond Elut C₁₈ OH cartridge to separate 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25-OH-D) and 1α-25-dihydroxyvitamin D [1,25(OH)₂D] fractions. The 25-OH-D fraction was purified by a Bond Elut C₁₈ cartridge and 25-OH-D₂ and 25-OH-D₃ were assayed by HPLC using a Zorbax SIL column. The 1,25(OH)₂D fraction obtained above was subsequently applied to HPLC using a Zorbax SIL column to separate 1,25(OH)₂D₂ and 1,25(OH)₂D₃ fractions which were determined by a radioreceptor assay (RRA) using calf thymus receptor. The method was applied to nutritional studies.     

Mutagenicity testing in mammalian cells: I. Derivation of a chinese hamster ovary cell line heterozygous for the adenine phosphoribosyltransferase and thymidine kinase loci

As a first step in the development of a multiple-marker, mammalian cell mutagenesis assay system, we have isolated a Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell line that is heterozygous for both the adenine phosphoribosyltransferase (aprt) and thymidine kinase (tk) loci. Presumptive aprt^+/? heterozygotes with intermediate levels of APRT activity were selected from unmutagenized CHO cell populations on the basis of resistance to low concentrations of the adenine analog, 8-azaadenine. A functional aprt^+/? heterozygote with ～50% wild-type APRT activity was subsequently used to derive sublines that were also heterozygous for the tk locus. Biochemical and genetic characterization of one such subline, CHO-AT3-2, indicated that it was indeed heterozygous at both the aprt and tk loci. CHO-AT3-2 cells permitted single-step selection of mutants resistant to 8-azaadenine or 5-fluorodeoxyuridine, allowing quantitation and direct comparison of mutation induction at the autosomal aprt or tk loci, as well as in the gene involved in ouabain resistance or at the X-linked, hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (hgprt) locus. Significant dose-dependent increases in mutation frequency were observed for all 4 genetic markers after treatment of CHO-AT3-2 cells with ethyl methanesulfonate.     

Drug screening assay based on the interaction of intact Keap1 and Nrf2 proteins in cancer cells

Background

The Nrf2–Keap1 interaction is the major regulatory pathway for cytoprotective responses against oxidative and electrophilic stresses. Keap1, a substrate protein of a Cul3-dependent E3 ubiquitin ligase complex, is a negative regulator of Nrf2. The use of chemicals to regulate the interaction between Keap1 and Nrf2 has been proposed as a strategy for the chemoprevention of degenerative diseases and cancers.