黄山短尾猴（Macaca thibetana）的主要食性分析

2011年11月至2012年10月,作者采用粪便显微分析法研究了黄山短尾猴的四季食性.结果表明：黄山短尾猴共取食植物26科50种;不同季节间黄山短尾猴食性具有明显变化,冬季取食13科25种植物,春季取食23科46种植物,夏季取食14科32种植物,秋季取食17科37种植物;壳斗科、樟科是黄山短尾猴全年的主要食物,占短尾猴总取食量的51.26%～59.75%,其他科属植物也占有重要地位;甜槠在四季均为黄山短尾猴的主要取食食物,豹皮樟在冬季取食量相对较高,秋季最低,红楠、杉木在冬春季节的取食比例差异最大;黄山短尾猴采取与其他灵长类相似的觅食策略;黄山短尾猴四季食物生态位宽度差异不明显,受人为影响较为明显.     

基于正交试验设计开展的黑猩猩食物丰容效果研究

基于正交试验设计,对上海动物园8头黑猩猩(Pan troglodytes)进行食物丰容(木丝、麻袋和竹筒)对取食行为影响的研究,利用正交试验设计试验因素和水平,采用所有事件取样法记录丰容前后黑猩猩取食行为的持续时间。结果表明,通过正交试验设计,能够有效对不同的试验方案进行排序。本研究中,对黑猩猩取食行为影响的主次顺序依次为木丝>麻袋>竹筒;不同食物丰容方式对成年雄性取食行为影响不显著,所有成年雌性丰容后取食行为增加,且取食占比比雄性高,幼年个体在丰容后取食行为占比降低。3种丰容方式对成年雄性和幼年个体的取食行为都没有显著影响。对4头成年雌性黑猩猩的最优丰容组合为木丝和麻袋(有无竹筒都可),对1头亚成年雌性黑猩猩的最优组合为木丝(有无竹筒和麻袋都可)。木丝对成年雌性取食行为的影响极显著(P <0.01),竹筒对每个个体行为影响均不显著(P> 0.05),麻袋对部分个体影响不显著(P> 0.05)。     

黄山短尾猴社群中的架桥行为

2007年3~5月,采用随机取样法对黄山短尾猴(Macaca thibetana)YA1群架桥行为进行研究。结果表明,不同时间段架桥行为发生次数存在极显著差异(t=3.912,df=10,P<0.01)。成年组雄性个体是主要发起者(Z=-2.1888,P<0.05)和接受者(Z=-2.5238,P<0.05),但同年龄组不同性别个体发起次数(Z=-1.755,P>0.05)无显著差异,接受次数(Z=-2.201,P<0.05)差异显著。架桥行为多采用雄性婴幼猴(Z=-2.437,P<0.05)(F=6.735,df=2,P<0.05)作为媒介,母亲序位影响婴幼猴在架桥中被使用的次数(Z=-3.724,P<0.01)。不同序位雄性(F=2.947,df=4,P<0.05)和雌性个体(F=5.320,df=4,P<0.05)架桥行为发起模式主要是第Ⅰ类。雌性个体选择具有亲缘关系的个体作为架桥媒介(Z=-2.490,P<0.05),但雄性个体对母系亲属后代无明显选择性(Z=-0.866,P>0.05)。短期研究表明,黄山短尾猴社群中的架桥行为主要采用第Ⅰ类模式;亲缘关系不一定是影响架桥行为媒介选择的主要因素;架桥行为具有缓解群体间竞争压力的作用。     

土壤pH值对秦岭川金丝猴食土行为的影响

食土行为广泛存在于灵长类动物中,关于灵长类的食土行为有很多功能性的假说,包括补充矿物质、有毒物质吸附、抗腹泻、抗体内寄生虫感染及肠胃酸性中和等假说。为了解秦岭川金丝猴取食黏土的影响因子和功能假说,于2013年9月至2015年1月采用扫描观察法和瞬时记录法收集食性数据,记录取食黏土个体的性别年龄及取食位置,并采集秦岭川金丝猴取食的黏土和对照黏土样品。于2016年07月采用电位法测定土壤样品的pH值。食性结果表明不同性别年龄个体,从1岁的婴幼猴到成年个体都存在取食黏土的行为;秦岭川金丝猴取食黏土的pH显著高于对照样品的pH值。因此,本研究结果与肠胃酸性中和假说更为契合,秦岭川金丝猴取食偏碱性的黏土,有利于中和取食大量芽和叶摄入的酸性物质。     

黄山短尾猴繁殖的季节性和雌性性活动方式

1987年开始,我们对中国黄山的短尾猴(Macaca thibetana)的性和繁殖行为进行了研究。本文根据1992年全年野外观察,对黄山短尾猴的繁殖季节性和雌性性活动方式进行深入研究,以揭示短尾猴繁殖方式和雌性性行为如何影响雄性性行为。研究采用全事件取样和目标动物取样法。结果表明,短尾猴黄山种群的交配和产仔是季节性的：交配季节发生在7月至12月,其特征是交配频率高并伴有射精;产仔季节为1月至4月。交配季节之外的交配虽有少量发生．但交配频率很低且几乎不射精。成年雌性的会阴部有轻微肿胀的性皮,但性皮的大小和颜色既不随猴群繁殖季节变化,也不随雌性个体生理周期变化。同时,雌性缺乏典型的性要求的行为——发情。因此,我们认为雌性短尾猴倾向于隐蔽自己的排卵。对46个连续观察日中成年雄性对雌性的性行为分析还表明：雄性能够区别潜在繁殖和不繁殖的雌性但不能对同一雌性的生理状况做出准确判断。隐蔽排卵是雌性在性接受期间接受大量交配的主要原因。本研究否定了短尾猴的交配是非季节性的假设(Wadaand Xicmg,1996)[动物学报51(3)：365—375,2005]。     

黄山短尾猴对游人攻击行为比较

为探讨黄山短尾猴对游人攻击行为与猴(行为发起者)和游人(行为承受者)年龄/性别组的关系,于2008年11-12月和2009年4-5月以黄山短尾猴鱼鳞坑YAl群和YA2群为研究对象,将其攻击行为按照危害程度大小划分为3类,采用全事件取样法和连续取样法观察记录猴对游人攻击行为类型、发生攻击行为的短尾猴和受到攻击的游人年龄/性别组,并统计猴群和游人数最.研究发现,成年雄猴所有攻击行为发生的比例显著高于期望值(P<0.01),成年雌猴和未成年猴攻击行为Ⅲ(威胁)发乍的比例显著低于期望值(P<0.01);在游人中,成年男性受到所有攻击发生的比例显著高于期望值(P<0.01),成年女性和末成年人受到攻击行为Ⅲ发生的比例显著低十期单值(P<0.01).结果表明,黄山矩尾猴对游人的攻击行为在人猴年龄/性别组中存在差异.成年雄性比成年雌性和未成年猴更易攻击游人,成年男性游人比成年女性和未成年人更易受剑短尾猴攻击.建议在管理过程中重点监控管理成年雄猴和提醒成年男性游人,这为进一步探讨人猴之间关系提供科学基础,并为其他类似地区生态旅游监管提供案例以供借鉴.     

黄山短尾猴的左右手倾向

就取食过程中惯用左手还是右手的问题,我们对安徽省黄山的一群短尾猴进行了研究。结果发现在调查的33只个体中,9只惯用右手取食,11只惯用左手取食,另外13只对左右手的使用没有偏好。而且短尾猴在左右手的偏好方面也没有性别或年龄的差异。以往的一些研究表明猕猴类动物习惯于用左手取食,但是研究群的短尾猴并没有表现出这种倾向。我们将短尾猴的研究结果与猕猴属其它种类进行了比较,并讨论了猕猴属在这一行为上的多样性。     

野生雌性黄山短尾猴产后摄食胎盘新发现

摄食胎盘行为是哺乳动物分娩过程的组成部分之一,具有重要的生态学和生物学意义。野生哺乳动物的分娩大多发生在夜间,受光线和视线等观察条件的限制,很难直接观察到野生动物的分娩行为。2015年4月9日8点59分,我们在安徽黄山观察野生短尾猴 (Macaca thibetana) 鱼鳞坑A1群时,发现初次生产的雌性个体“头华玉 (THY)”分娩后摄食胎盘的行为,随即采用目标动物取样法记录了该个体摄食胎盘的行为过程。THY摄食胎盘包括舔舐、撕成片状、刮食和吞咽等过程,历时2小时29分钟,其中摄食胎盘有效时间长于63min,进程缓慢。与其他相关研究比较,初次生产的雌性短尾猴头华玉 (THY) 摄食胎盘具有花费时间长、社会交往多、警惕性高的特点。本研究是本课题组在安徽黄山研究短尾猴30年首次直接观察到产后摄食胎盘行为,为了解短尾猴的繁殖行为和非人灵长类的繁殖特性提供了难得基础资料。     

雄性短尾猴维持临时配偶关系的行为适应性

临时配偶关系指多雌多雄灵长类群体中的一只成年雄性连续跟随一只成年发情期/性接受期的雌性形成的异性关系,在季节性繁殖物种的交配季节表现的尤为明显,是雄性个体提高交配成功的策略之一。为了探讨能量消耗对这种行为的约束,本研究于2017年8月至2018年1月,以栖息于安徽黄山的短尾猴鱼鳞坑A1群（YA1群）的8~10只成年雄性为研究对象,采用目标动物取样法、行为取样法以及全事件记录法采集成年雄性自然发生的行为数据。通过分析移动时间、觅食时间和交配频次等行为指标,同时测定作为个体能量状态生理指标的尿液C-肽浓度（Urinary C-peptide , UCP）,从行为和生理两个方面研究雄性短尾猴维持临时配偶关系的适应性特征。研究期间,在临时配偶期内,雄性的移动时间无显著变化,但觅食时间和交配频率显著增加;在临时配偶期内,当存在雄性竞争者时,雄性的觅食时间显著减少;临时配偶关系对雄性的UCP水平无显著影响。结果表明,雄性短尾猴在临时配偶期内可能会根据能量消耗的情况以及守护雌性周围的社会环境对自身行为进行调整,以减少其在临时配偶期内的能量投资,提高自身维持临时配偶关系的行为适应性。     

日本梅花鹿与大丰麇鹿发情期反刍行为的差异

家养有蹄类动物的反刍行为已有大量研究,而受限于野外条件,野生有蹄类动物反刍行为的研究有限。以往研究认为,体型可能是影响动物反刍行为的重要因素。本研究以日本奈良公园日本梅花鹿Cervus nippon nippon和中国江苏大丰麋鹿Elaphurus davidianus为研究对象,观察记录并比较分析了发情期的日本梅花鹿与发情期的麋鹿在卧息时反刍行为的种内及种间差异。按照年龄性别差异,分5种类型(成年雄性、成年雌性、亚成雄性、亚成雌性和幼鹿)研究两物种食团咀嚼时间、咀嚼频率和咀嚼速率的差异。结果表明,1)日本梅花鹿的咀嚼速率和食团咀嚼时间受性别-年龄的显著影响:咀嚼速率为幼体>亚成雌性>亚成雄性>成年雌性>成年雄性,而食团咀嚼时间为成年雄性>亚成雄性>成年雌性>亚成雌性>幼体;2)性别-年龄对麋鹿咀嚼频率有显著的影响,成年雄性<成年雌性<亚成雄性<亚成雌性<幼体;3)两物种在咀嚼频率、食团咀嚼时间和咀嚼速率上的差异均有统计学意义,体型更大的麋鹿咀嚼速率更慢,食团咀嚼时间更长。与体型相关的性别及年龄显著影响了日本梅花鹿和麋鹿的反刍行为。     

Geophagy by the bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata) of southern India: A preliminary analysis

Bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata) in the Marakkanam Reserved Forest of southern India consume termitaria soils. Samples from the ingested termite mounds are compared with samples taken from the surrounding uneaten soils in an attempt to determine why the termitaria soils are eaten. Particle size, clay and primary mineral composition, geochemistry, and scanning electron microscopic analyses are used to search for a possible explanation for geophagy among the bonnet macaques. Kaolin minerals abound throughout the Marakkanam soil sample suite. But the termitaria soils are distinguished by the presence of small amounts of smectite. An abundance of kaolin minerals in combination with small amounts of smectite strongly resembles the mineralogy ofeko, a traditional African remedy for stomach ailments, and Kaopectate™, a western anti-diarrhoeal preparation. The percentage of mature leaves and fruits ofAzadirachta indica consumed by the bonnet macaques is relatively high. Plant feeding deterrents, such as, acid detergent fibre (ADF) and the inherent nature of the fruits ofAzadirachta indica, when consumed in large quantities to act as a purgative, could cause gastrointestinal upsets and diarrhoea. At Marakkanam, bonnet macaques ingest termitaria earth that would act as a pharmaceutical agent to alleviate gastrointestinal upsets and control diarrhoea.     

Geophagy amongst rhesus macaques on Cayo Santiago,Puerto Rico

Soil mining and eating (geophagy) behavior of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) on Cayo Santiago, Puerto Rico, is described and assessed with respect to the chemical, geochemical, and mineralogical composition of the ingested materials. The samples forming the uneaten (control) and eaten (matrix and blocky) groups of soils come from the top and flanks of a marine terrace underlain with volcanic tuff on Cayo Santiago, off the east shore of Puerto Rico. Both the uneaten and geophagy samples were analyzed to determine particle size distributions, clay and primary mineralogy, and soil chemical and geochemical compositions. Primary minerals such as orthoclase and plagioclase feldspar in the clay fraction is higher in the control group than in the ingested samples. Both the control and matrix plus blocky samples have moderate to abundant amounts of kaolinite and halloysite (both silicon:aluminum = 1:1 type clay minerals) that may be important as a stimulus to geophagy behavior. The pH, total salts, and phosphorus levels in both the control and geophagy samples show considerable overlap with little clear indication of causal factors. Analysis of the geochemical data showed no clear cut elemental differences to suggest elemental supplementation as a possible explanation for mining and eating of tropical soil. It is possible that rhesus macaques ingest clay to obtain kaolinite/halloysite minerals which may alter the taste of their provided food, and may act as pharmaceutical agents to alleviate intestinal ailments such as diarrhea.     

Geophagy among primates: adaptive significance and ecological consequences

We review geophagy, or soil ingestion, in primates. This behaviour is widespread and is presumed to be important to health and nutrition. Primates may engage in geophagy for one or a combination of reasons. Here we present, and make a preliminary assessment of, six nonexclusive hypotheses that may contribute to the prevalence of geophagy. Four hypotheses relate to geophagy in alleviating gastrointestinal disorders or upsets: (1) soils adsorb toxins such as phenolics and secondary metabolites; (2) soil ingestion has an antacid action and adjusts the gut pH; (3) soils act as an antidiarrhoeal agent; and (4) soils counteract the effects of endoparasites. Two hypotheses pertain to geophagy in supplementing minerals and/or elements: (5) soils supplement nutrient-poor diets and (6) soils provide extra iron at high altitudes. In addition to these hypotheses, geophagy may satiate olfactory senses, serve as a famine food and finally may have no function at all. We draw together a large body of information from various sources to assess these hypotheses and suggest some tests to understand the function of geophagy. Our review suggests that primates engage in geophagy for a number of reasons that are nonexclusive. We conclude that mineral supplementation, adsorption of toxins, treatment of diarrhoea and pH adjustment of the gut seem the most plausible reasons why primates engage in geophagy. Copyright 2000 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.     

The Adaptive Significance of Geophagy for Japanese Macaques (Macaca fuscata) at Arashiyama,Japan

We gathered data on the amount, composition, and rate of ingestion of foods and soils by the provisioned Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata fuscata) at Arashiyama, Japan. Behavioral observations spanned one year on 8 adult females, using focal animal sampling. We analyzed a subsample of their foods for nutritional and toxic secondary compound content. We also analyzed soils eaten by the macaques for several physical-chemical properties and tested their adsorption affinity to tannins and alkaloids. Geophagy occurred at a high rate of 2.97 g/indiv./day with an elevated frequency in the afternoon. About two-thirds of their foods (by fresh weight) were provisioned items, which are extremely rich in proteins and soluble carbohydrates. The soils that they ingested were generally poor in mineral elements, the bio-availability of which was low. The soils had a high adsorption capacity for plant alkaloids but were poorly absorptive for tannins. They were rich in clay minerals of proven buffering capacity. Geophagy at Arashiyama may improve the health of macaques via buffering gastric upset. We discuss the results from the viewpoint of several hypotheses on geophagy.     

The Hand That Feeds the Monkey: Mutual Influence of Humans and Rhesus Macaques (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Macaca mulatta</Emphasis>) in the Context of Provisioning

Historically, humans and other primates (primates henceforth) have coexisted across cultures and contexts, and many primate populations use anthropogenic food sources as their main or supplementary food. While primates may actively forage for such food, they are also directly provisioned by humans in many regions. Ethnoprimatology views humans and primates as cohabitants of integrated socioecological spaces who mutually influence each other’s ecologies and social lives. We contextualized provisioning of primates by humans within an ethnoprimatological framework and examined if the availability of anthropogenic food affected primate diets or the amount of time primates spent in anthropogenic habitats and whether primates influenced the human act of provisioning. To this end, we used scan sampling on a group of rhesus macaques across a year, and conducted interviews with 86 people who paused at a nearby tea shop for refreshments. We found that the macaques’ consumption of natural resources and dietary diversity decreased, and they spent more time in human-modified habitats when provisioned food was available. We also found that particular behaviors of the provisioned macaques stimulated provisioning by humans. Our findings show that provisioning influences macaque feeding ecology and habitat use, and that the behavior of the macaques themselves drives people to provide them with food subsidies, illustrating a complex web of interactions between the sympatric species.     

Geophagy in Wild Yellow-Tailed Woolly Monkeys (Lagothrix flavicauda) Is Brief and Rare

International Journal of Primatology - Many primates intentionally consume earth. This geophagy has probable health benefits, such as mineral supplementation or gastrointestinal tract protection,...     

Observations of termitarium geophagy by Rylands’ bald-faced saki monkeys (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pithecia rylandsi</Emphasis>) in Madre de Dios,Peru

Geophagy, or soil consumption, has been documented in diverse animal taxa, including many primates. Physiological functions such as mineral supplementation, detoxification of secondary compounds, and antacid properties are possible causes for this behavior. We report on observations of geophagy at arboreal termitaria by free-ranging Pithecia rylandsi at La Estación Biológica Los Amigos (EBLA) in Perú between 2008 and 2015. Characteristics of geophagy events, including saki monkey behavior at the termitaria, were recorded and geochemical analyses were conducted on consumed termitaria, nearby topsoils, and unvisited termitaria. We observed 76 feeding bouts at 26 different termitaria by two groups of P. rylandsi during 1125 observational hours (0.07 bouts/obs. h). Geophagy occurred throughout the year, but rates peaked in January during the rainy season. All age and sex classes visited both active and inactive mounds. Feeding bouts were brief (171 ± SD 154 s), and no differences were observed in time spent feeding at active or inactive termitaria. Analyses showed that consumed soils contained higher concentrations of phosphorous, potassium, calcium, and magnesium than did topsoil. Consumed soils also contained a higher total cation exchange capacity than topsoil. Our analysis of consumed versus control termitaria revealed no differences in their chemical composition. We discuss these results in the context of the two primary hypotheses proposed for geophagy in pitheciins: mineral supplementation and toxin adsorption. Our data are consistent with the interpretation that P. rylandsi consume soils from arboreal termitaria to aid in adsorption of toxins found in immature seeds, which are a year-round component of their diet.     

Mountain gorilla geophagy: A possible seasonal behavior for dealing with the effects of dietary changes

Geophageous Rwandan mountain gorillas excavate and eat weathered leucite-rich regolith (subsoil C horizons) from the slopes of Mount Visoke in the Virunga Mountains. In the months of the dry season, the gorillas reportedly ingest a halloysitic natural earth having a chemical composition similar to that of Kaopectate, a pharmaceutical used by humans to treat gastrointestinal upsets. Several plants known to contain potential toxins are consumed more heavily by gorillas in these months. New information from geochemical and mineral analyses suggests that geophagy may alleviate intestinal problems associated with changes in their diet because the ingested weathered regolith,containing halloysitic clay minerals, may act as a pharmaceutical agent that helps to adsorb toxins and to control dehydration in the dry season.     

Dominance Style Among Macaca thibetana on Mt. Huangshan, China

The dominance style concept has proven useful for understanding covariation patterns in relationship qualities, particularly among macaques. However, the dominance styles of many macaques, including Tibetan macaques (Macaca thibetana), have not been examined in detail. We describe patterns of bidirectionality of aggression, postconflict affiliation and kin bias in a group of wild, but provisioned Tibetan macaques over a 2-yr period in order make an initial assessment of their dominance style. Bidirectional aggression, including percentage of counteraggression (1.9%), and conciliatory tendencies (6.4%) were consistently low across partner combinations, seasons and locations (forest vs. provisioning area). In addition, females consistently displayed high levels of kin bias in affiliation and tolerance. Compared with macaque species with better known dominance styles, the Tibetan data generally fell within the range for despotic species and outside the range for relaxed species. Although other researchers have tentatively classified them as tolerant or relaxed, we conclude that Tibetan macaques display a despotic dominance style. This conclusion poses complications to explanations based both on phylogenetic inertia and socio-ecological models.     

Why dominants do not consistently attain high mating and reproductive success: A review of longitudinal Japanese macaque studies

There is wide interest in the effects of reproductive biology, mating partner preference, and rank on mating success (MS) and reproductive success (RS) in primates. In particular, theory stresses importance on the mechanisms for attaining RS. Most theory hedges on competitive ability and priority of access to resources, whether they be food or estrous females. However, the majority of data used in favor of such hypotheses come from relatively short-term studies. We review these hypotheses based on long-term data from provisioned and unprovisioned populations of Japanese macaques. Neither MS nor RS were consistently attained by high-ranking males and females. For males, female choice and mating partner preference is seen to over-ride most male-male competitive behaviors likely to affect MS and RS through priority of access to estrous females. Long-term mating patterns driven largely by female partner preferences, results in decreasing MS and RS for older higher-ranking males. The long-term trend for females to prefer less familiar or novel partners results in higher MS and RS for younger, middle-ranking males. The effects of this vary according to troop size and the duration of male tenure. For females, no consistent trend was recognized for rank related RS in either provisioned or unprovisioned troops. Non-reproductive mating may provide differential benefit to high-ranking females for access to limited food resources in some habitats but overall the relationship was inconclusive. Distribution and defendability of food resource, rather than provisioning per se may be more important.