CONCENTRATE SPRAYING OF APPLE TREES I. FUNGICIDAL EFFICIENCY OF LIME-SULPHUR

Experiments are described in which the efficiency of undiluted lime-sulphur applied as a spray mist of small droplets, formed by and carried in a stream of compressed air, was compared on small Cox's Orange Pippin apple trees with that of diluted lime-sulphur applied either in the same way or by orthodox hydraulic spraying. The control without spray damage of apple scab ( Venturia inaequalis (Cooke) Wint.) and apple mildew ( Podosphaera leucotricha (Ell. & Everh.) Salm.) was the criterion.
The undiluted concentrate proved at least as effective and safe as the hydraulically applied dilute spray when a satisfactory method of application, by a paint spray gun, had been established. A 50% dilution applied in this way at increased volume proved equally effective, but a 10% dilution similarly applied failed to give satis-factory control of scab, probably because of the reduced dosage.     

Interrelation of Scion and Rootstock in Fruit-trees: I. Weights and Relative Weights of Young Trees formed by the Reciprocal Unions, as Scion and Rootstock, of Three Apple Rootstock Varieties: M.IX, M.IV, and M.XII

Three apple rootstock varieties, M. IX, M. IV, and M. XII, werecombined as scion and rootstock in all nine ways and sampleswere harvested at intervals over 3 years. Their relative sizeson each occasion and their relative rates of growth betweenoccasions were determined by calculating the ratios betweenthe geometric mean weights. The ratio of the products of thesefor trees with reciprocal Unlike unions, e.g. IX/XIIx XII/IX,to that for trees with Like unions of the component varieties,e.g. IX/IX x XII/XII, was slightly but not significantly lessthan unity. Composite trees, e.g. IX/XII, resembled in sizethose of the rootstock type, e.g. XII, more than the scion variety,IX, though this had some influence.     

Chitinase activities, scab resistance, mycorrhization rates and biomass of own-rooted and grafted transgenic apple

This study investigated the impact of constitutively expressed Trichoderma atroviride genes encoding exochitinase nag70 or endochitinase ech42 in transgenic lines of the apple cultivar Pinova on the symbiosis with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). We compared the exo- and endochitinase activities of leaves and roots from non-transgenic Pinova and the transgenic lines T386 and T389. Local and systemic effects were examined using own-rooted trees and trees grafted onto rootstock M9. Scab susceptibility was also assessed in own-rooted and grafted trees. AMF root colonization was assessed microscopically in the roots of apple trees cultivated in pots with artificial substrate and inoculated with the AMF Glomus intraradices and Glomus mosseae. Own-rooted transgenic lines had significantly higher chitinase activities in their leaves and roots compared to non-transgenic Pinova. Both of the own-rooted transgenic lines showed significantly fewer symptoms of scab infection as well as significantly lower root colonization by AMF. Biomass production was significantly reduced in both own-rooted transgenic lines. Rootstock M9 influenced chitinase activities in the leaves of grafted scions. When grafted onto M9, the leaf chitinase activities of non-transgenic Pinova (M9/Pinova) and transgenic lines (M9/T386 and M9/T389) were not as different as when grown on their own roots. M9/T386 and M9/T389 were only temporarily less infected by scab than M9/Pinova. M9/T386 and M9/T389 did not differ significantly from M9/Pinova in their root chitinase activities, AMF root colonization and biomass.     

Effect of rootstock on apple (Malus domestica) tree water relations

The effects of rootstock on mid-season water relations, under orchard conditions of non-limiting soil moisture, were determined for bearing 'Empire' apple trees ( Malus domestica Borkh.) on the clonal rootstocks M9, M26, M7, MM106, and MM104 (most to least dwarfing) in their sixth and seventh growing seasons. Stem water potentials (ψ^stem) of trees on M9 and M26 were more negative at midday, under warm, sunny conditions, than were the trees on the other three rootstocks. However, change in ψ^stem per change in stem distance through the canopy (water potential gradient) did not vary among rootstocks at midday. There was no rootstock effect on diurnal variation in transpiration or stomatal conductance. Differences in water storage capacitance, relative to tree size, were determined in a separate study but did not account for the differences observed in ψ^stem. Calculated hydraulic conductivities of xylem water transport suggest that rootstocks differ in their ability to conduct water to the scion, but hydraulic conductivity of the scion was not affected by rootstock. Root-stock differences in hydraulic conductivity were not accounted for by differences in tree size.     

Application of architectural analysis and AMAPmod methodology to study dwarfing phenomenon: the branch structure of 'Royal Gala' apple grafted on dwarfing and non-dwarfing rootstock/interstock combinations

Architectural analysis was applied to study branch development of 'Royal Gala' apple trees grafted with dwarfing and non-dwarfing rootstock/interstock combinations, which had been chosen to produce trees with a wide range of vigour. Using AMAPmod methodology, the structure of 3-year-old branches was described at four levels of representation: branch; annual shoot; growth unit; and node. Three types of growth units were distinguished: extension growth unit (vegetative unit with internode extension); vegetative spur with minimal internode extension; and fruiting spur or bourse. The aim of the analysis was to describe exactly how the rootstock/interstock combinations affected the structure building process. The number of extension growth units, vegetative spurs and fruiting spurs per annual shoot changed over the years, but this was not affected by rootstock/interstock combination. Compared with MM.106 rootstock, M.9 rootstock reduced the number of nodes per extension growth unit. In most cases, rootstock/interstock combination had no effect on the linear relationship between extension growth unit length and node number (R(2) = 0.88). Average internode length depended on unit node number, with internodes being shorter for units with fewer nodes. Thus the difference in apple branch size induced by the rootstock/interstock combinations was mainly due to a reduction in the length and number of neoformed nodes produced on extension growth units. As percentage budbreak of axillary buds on extension growth units was not affected by rootstock/interstock combination, differences in numbers of axillary annual shoots per branch were entirely due to differences in the total numbers of nodes extended during the previous year.     

Factors promoting infestation of newly planted, nonbearing apple orchards by dogwood borer (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae)

The initiation and level of infestation by dogwood borer, Synanthedon scitula (Harris), was tracked over three consecutive years in two nonbearing apple (Malus spp.) orchards in West Virginia and Virginia. The orchards were planted on a number of rootstock-variety (approximately cultivar) combinations and grown using different cultural practices. Infestations were detected during the first season after planting and continued to increase annually. The amount of burr knot tissue had the greatest impact on dogwood borer populations, because increasing amounts of burr knot tissue resulted in higher infestation rates. The use of plastic spiral wrap tree guards seemed to increase the development of burr knot tissue, resulting in significantly greater infestation compared with trees without tree guards in the West Virginia orchard. Variety also had a significant effect, because 'Idared' trees on M.26 had significantly greater levels of infestation compared with 'Buckeye Gala' on M.26, with or without tree guards, in the Virginia orchard. Mounding soil around the rootstock to a height just above the graft union prevented or tremendously curtailed infestation by dogwood borer, but it led to scion rooting that seemed to have an impact on size-controlling features of dwarfing rootstocks. Removal of the mounds at the beginning of the third growing season resulted in infestation of the rooted tissue during the same season. As long as apple cultivars continue to be planted on size-controlling rootstocks, dogwood borer will likely remain a serious pest, requiring either chemical treatments or a behavioral control strategy, such as mating disruption, to protect trees from infestation and damage.     

Influence of rootstock on antioxidant system in leaves and roots of young apple trees in response to drought stress

Grafting rootstocks are widely used to enhance plants resistance to various biologic and abiotic stresses. We determined how the rootstock genotype might influence plant responses to drought, using 2-year-old ‘Gale Gala’ apple trees grafted onto Malus sieversii and M. hupehensis. Under water stress, trees with the former as their rootstock had smaller reductions in rates of relative growth and photosynthesis, total biomass, leaf area, levels of leaf chlorophyll, and relative water content compared with those grafted onto the latter. They also had greater maximum photochemical efficiency and water-use efficiency. On the other hand, trees growing on M. sieversii rootstock had less production of superoxide radicals and hydrogen peroxide in both leaves and roots than those growing on M. hupehensis in response to drought stress. Furthermore, under drought conditions, leaves and roots from trees grafted onto M. sieversii had greater synthesis of ascorbic acid and glutathione, as well as higher activities of superoxide dismutase, catalase, ascorbate peroxidase, monodehydroascorbate reductase, dehydroascorbate reductase, and glutathione reductase. These results suggest that the choice of grafting rootstock can enhance drought resistance by improving the antioxidant system in a plant. Here, ‘Gale Gala’ trees grafted onto M. sieversii were more drought-resistant than those on M. hupehensis rootstock.     

渭北旱塬矮砧密植苹果园土壤矿质氮积累与空间分布特征

随着苹果矮砧密植栽培模式的迅速发展,揭示矮砧密植苹果园土壤矿质氮的积累与分布特征对果园科学施肥具有重要意义.本研究以不同树龄(6a、9a、12a)的矮砧密植苹果园为对象,在树下、株间、行间以及树干与行间的中间点位置采集土样,分析土壤硝态氮、铵态氮和矿质氮的积累与分布特征.结果 表明:O～ 300 cm土层土壤硝态氮累积...     

SOME SOIL FACTORS AFFECTING VERTICILLIUM WILT OF ANTIRRHINUM

Variations in the application rates of chalk and superphosphate and the omission of all the fertilisers had no visible effect on the incidence of wilt caused by any of the five Verticillium species.
he literature dealing with the influence of soil conditions upon the Verticillium wilt of a wide range of host plants is reviewed. It is shown that the species V. alboatrum, V. dahliae, V. nigrescens, V. nubilum and V. tricorpus vary inter se in their pathogenicity to Antirrhinum majus, and that their infectivity may be influenced by soil treatments. Thus, in pot cultures, the incidence of antirrhinum wilt induced by Verticillium dahliae and V. nigrescens was reduced by increasing sulphate of potash or ammonium sulphate; or by decreasing soil moisture. Very wet soil and heavy dressings of hoof-and-horn were the only conditions under which V. nubilunt and V. tricorpus induced wilt symptoms. Z7. albo-atrunt was the most virulent species tested; none of the soil treatments decreased its pathogenicity.     

Architecture and size relations: an essay on the apple (Malus x domestica, Rosaceae) tree

The influence of tree size independent of age on some architectural features (annual shoot length, lateral branching, flowering) was investigated on 4-yr-old apple (Malus × domestica) trees either own-rooted or grafted on the dwarfing rootstock M.9, giving rise to large and small trees, respectively. Tree size significantly affected the length of the first annual shoot of bottom branches with a lesser effect on the subsequent annual shoots of the same branches and on branches situated higher in the tree canopy. The linear regression parameters, i.e., slopes and intercepts, between annual shoot length and number of growing laterals were affected by the genotype and, depending on genotype, by tree size. Flowering was generally lower, delayed, and more irregular on large trees compared to small trees, with on average similar ranking of genotypes regardless of tree size. This study provides evidence for a specific effect of tree size, as affected by the root system, on architectural development of the apple tree regardless of the genotype. From an architectural viewpoint, the dwarfing mechanism could be interpreted as a faster physiological aging essentially related to the reduction in length of the first annual shoot of bottom branches and the high flowering on this shoot.     

Rootstock genotype succession influences apple replant disease and root-zone microbial community composition in an orchard soil

Apple replant disease (ARD) is a soil-borne disease complex that affects young apple trees in replanted orchards, resulting in stunted growth and reduced yields. Newly developed rootstock genotypes with tolerance to ARD may help to control this disease. We determined the effects of rootstock genotype rotations during orchard renovation, by investigating root-zone soil microbial consortia and the relative severity of ARD on seven rootstock genotypes (M.9, M.26, G.30, G.41, G.65, G.935, and CG.6210) planted in soil where trees on four of those same rootstocks (M.9, M.26, G.30 and CG.6210) had grown for the previous 15 years. Rootstock genotyping indicated that genetic distances among rootstocks were loosely correlated with their differential responses to ARD. Root-zone fungal and bacterial community composition, assessed by DNA fingerprinting (T-RFLP), differed between M.26 and CG.6210. Soil bacterial communities were influenced most by which rootstock had grown in the soil previously, while fungal communities were influenced more by the current replanted rootstock. In a clone library of bacteria from M.26 and CG.6210 root-zone soil, β-Proteobacteria was the most abundant phylum (25% of sequences). Sequences representing the Burkholderia cepacia complex were obtained only from CG.6210 soil. Rootstock genotypes that were grown in the orchard soil previously affected subsequent ARD severity, but replanting with the same or closely related rootstocks did not necessarily exacerbate this disease problem. Our results suggest that genotype-specific interactions with soil microbial consortia are linked with apple rootstock tolerance or susceptibility to ARD.     

Relative Importance of Rootstock and Scion in Determining Growth and Fruiting in Young Apple Trees

Principal component analysis has been used on annual measuresof vegetative and reproductive activity of young apple trees.The trial consisted of four clones (M.2, M.4, M.9, and M.16)used as both rootstock and scion in all possible combinationsto give 16 tree types. The results have suggested that theseannual records can best be summarized by their sum and lineartrend with time. Further analyses using these new measures ofsum and trend have enabled the effects of rootstock and scionto be partitioned. Increase in stem dry weight is largely rootstock-controlledbut trend with time is mainly scion-controlled. The reverseoccurs with fruit number where total fruit is largely scion-controlledbut the trend is dominated by the rootstock. Measures of leadergrowth are intermediate between stem growth and fruiting intheir responses. Statistical interactions are greatest withfruiting records which suggests that this activity is less harmoniouslycontrolled by rootstock and scion than other activities. Use of sum and linear trend is recommended for future analysesof apple tree trials without recourse to further multivariateanalyses.     

Effects of nitrogen supply on growth, contents of phenolic compounds and pathogen (scab) resistance of apple trees

The effect of long-term N-supply on growth, scab resistance and phenolic compounds in the leaves of two apple cultivars was studied. The different pools of phenylpropanoids (hydroxycinnamic acids, dihydrochalcones) and flavonoids (flavonols, catechins, procyanidins) were quanitfied by HPLC from non-infected and inoculated leaves representing different ontogenetic stages. Scab incidence was also evaluated. Strictly following the carbon-nutrient-balance hypothesis, apple trees responded to high N-supply with increased shoot growth and with a reduced accumulation of total phenolic compounds in their leaves. This was shown for the cultivar 'Golden Delicious', which is susceptible to the scab disease caused by Venturia inaequalis , and for the resistant cultivar 'Rewena'. Whereas high N-fertilization increased the susceptibility of 'Golden Delicious', it did not decrease the resistance of 'Rewena' despite of the pronounced reduction of phenolic concentrations. Thus, a simple C trade off between growth-related metabolism and secondary metabolism cannot solely explain changes in defensive potential.     

The relationship of hydraulic conductance to root system characteristics of peach (Prunus persica) rootstocks

Specific rootstocks can differentially influence the vegetative growth and development of fruit trees. However, the physiological mechanism involved in this phenomenon has been elusive. Recent research comparing different peach ( Prunus persica L. Batsch) rootstocks suggests that the rootstock effect on vegetative growth in peach trees is associated to water relations and more specifically to differences in rootstock hydraulic conductance. This study was intended to confirm differences in hydraulic characteristics of similar size peach trees grafted on different rootstocks and to examine root system characteristics that could be associated with rootstock hydraulic limitations. Trees on rootstocks that were known to have a size-controlling effect when grown under field conditions had lower rootstock conductance than trees on the vigorous (control) rootstock when rootstock hydraulic conductance was measured with both the high-pressure and evaporative flow methods. Rootstocks with the lowest hydraulic conductance had less fine root surface area and length per unit root dry weight than the more vigorous (control) rootstock. However, contrary to previous field studies, in this study there were no significant differences in dry matter production and distribution among trees on the different rootstocks suggesting that whatever the normal growth control mechanism was, it did not differentially influence growth under the specific conditions of this study. This research confirmed that peach rootstocks exhibiting size-controlling behavior under field conditions differed in their hydraulic and morphological characteristics under controlled growth conditions even when those growth conditions negated the expression of the size-controlling behavior.     

Short-term Studies of the Uptake of Nitrogen by Young Apple Trees after Soil Application of Ammonium Nitrate

Young trees of apple rootstock MM.104 were supplied with ammoniumnitrate (0.4 g in 100 ml water) via the soil at selected timesduring the annual growth cycle. Appreciable amounts of nitrogenwere taken up within 40 h in summer and autumn, leading to increasesin the soluble nitrogen fraction. Corresponding changes werenot detected in the insoluble nitrogen fraction. The increasesin soluble nitrogen were not dependent on carbohydrate status,plant size, root mass or on whether or not shoot extension hadceased. Amounts of increase were profoundly influenced by priornitrogen status as modified by a small pre-treatment boost ofammonium nitrate given in July.     

INVESTIGATION OF FIRE-BLIGHT OF PEAR IN ENGLAND

Outbreaks of fire-blight, caused by Erwinia amylovora , in Kentish orchards during 1957 constitute the first authenticated record of the disease in Europe. The origin of the disease is unknown, but evidence suggests that it was not present in the orchards prior to 1957.
The seasonal development and symptoms of the disease are described in detail. Fire-blight attacked trees only during the growing season; infection began in the blossoms, particularly summer blossoms, and spread into the branches forming cankers, in many of which the pathogen remained viable during the winter 1957–8. In the orchards examined there was a higher incidence of new infections by July 1958 on trees attacked the previous year than on those which were then healthy, and this is discussed in relation to overwintering sources of inoculum. The distribution of the disease in orchards during 1957 and 1958 was consistent with spread by pollinating insects rather than rain.
The outstanding susceptibility of the variety Laxton's Superb in all localities was attributed partly to its tendency to produce abundant secondary blossom. Inoculations of blossoms, fruits, shoots and branches showed it also to have less inherent resistance than the varieties Williams's Bon Chrétien and Conference, neither of which has been seriously affected in the field. The progress of symptoms following inoculation of pear and infection experiments with apple, Cotoneaster sp., Pyracantha sp., and other hosts, are described.
A comparison of climatic conditions favouring the disease in the U.S.A., i.e. high temperatures and high humidity, with meteorological records at East Malling, suggests that epidemic infection of spring blossom would be exceptional in this country.     

Association of Tobacco Ringspot Virus with a Union Incompatibility of Apple

A virus-like disease of apple was observed for the first time in Canada in 1974 in a three year old planting. The disease was characterised by stem pitting, necrosis and breaking or separation of scion/rootstock at the graft union. Foliage was sparse and leaves were chlorotic and diffusely mottled. Using both frozen and freshly harvested leaves of infected apple trees from rootstock suckers as inoculum, a virus was transmitted to herbaceous indicator hosts. Based on host range symptoms, serology and electron microscopy, this virus was identified as tobacco ringspot virus. Initial counts of nematodes in the rhizophere of apple trees affected with union necrosis showed high densities of Xiphinema americanum Cobb., a known vector of nepoviruses. Reports of similar symptoms have indicated that the disease, apple union necrosis and decline was associated with the recovery of tobacco ringspot virus from infected rootstocks. This is the first report associating a union incompatibility condition of apple and tobacco ringspot virus.     

Root and stem hydraulic conductivity as determinants of growth potential in grafted trees of apple (Malus pumila Mill.)

The anatomy of the graft tissue between a rootstock and its shoot (scion) can provide a mechanistic explanation of the way dwarfing Malus rootstocks reduce shoot growth. Considerable xylem tissue disorganization may result in graft tissue having a low hydraulic conductivity (k(h)), relative to the scion stem. The graft may influence the movement of substances in the xylem such as ions, water and plant-growth-regulating hormones. Measurements were made on 3-year-old apple trees with a low-pressure flow system to determine k(h) of root and scion stem sections incorporating the graft tissue. A range of rootstocks was examined, with different abilities of dwarfing; both ungrafted and grafted with the same scion shoot cultivar. The results showed that the hydraulic conductivity (k(hroot)) of roots from dwarfing rootstocks was lower compared with semi-vigorous rootstocks, at least for the size class of root measured (1.5 mm diameter). Scion hydraulic conductivity (k(hs)) was linked to leaf area and also to the rootstock on to which it was grafted, i.e. hydraulic conductivity was greater for the scion stem on the semi-vigorous rootstock. Expressing conductivities relative to xylem cross-sectional areas (k(s)) did not remove these differences suggesting that there were anatomical changes induced by the rootstock. The calculated hydraulic conductivity of the graft tissue was found to be lower for grafted trees on dwarfing rootstocks compared to invigorating rootstocks. These observations are discussed in relation to the mechanism(s) by which rootstock influences shoot growth in grafted trees.     

Results of a ground-water level and nitrogen fertilizer field experiment with apple trees on a marine clay soil

This paper summarizes and reviews some of the results of a 12-year experiment which was carried out in order to examine drainage requirements of apple trees on a newly reclaimed soil. The experiment involved production of Cox's Orange Pippin and Golden Delicious apples, grafted on M9 rootstock, that were planted on 11 different ground-water regime plots which were split into three nitrogen treatment sub-plots. It was found that there was a distinct variation in amounts of shoot growth, apple production nitrogen mineralization, and fruit quality on account of variations in the ground-water regime. No optimum ground-water regime could be established. This optimum may be quantified by using the capital budgeting decision procedure. The optimum nitrogen concentration in mid-shoot leaves, however, was found to be 2.3 and 2.4 percent of dry matter for Golden Delicious and Cox's Orange Pippin respectively. This report has been printed as a book with 266 pages, 96 figures, and 112 references. The book can be obtained from Ijsselmeerpolders Development Authority, P.O. Box 600, 8200 AP Lelystad, The Netherlands. Price of the book is D.Fl. 69,-and it includes postage.