阿尔茨海默病转基因小鼠的构建及鉴定

阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer disease, AD)是一种病因不明的原发性脑部神经系统疾病,多以老年斑和神经纤维缠结为特征,已严重威胁人类健康。建立理想的AD动物模型,对研究AD的发病机制以及药物筛选防治AD新药至关重要。将β-淀粉样前体蛋白(β-amyloid precursor protein,APP)基因整合到C57BL/6J小鼠(Mus musculus)基因组中,20周后取小鼠海马区。蛋白免疫沉淀和免疫组化检测结果显示有淀粉样前体蛋白表达;Y迷宫检测结果显示转基因小鼠记忆力变差,与空白对照组比较下降了18%。阿尔茨海默病转基因小鼠动物模型的成功构建,为进一步研究AD疾病提供了良好的研究基础。     

Tau蛋白高度磷酸化致阿尔茨海默病动物模型研究进展

阿尔茨海默病（Alzheimer＇sdisease,AD）是老年人中最常见的神经退行性疾病,以过度磷酸化tau蛋白为核心形成的神经原纤维缠结为AD的主要病理特征之一。近年来对tau蛋白磷酸化的研究备受关注。在AD的实验研究中,探索理想的AD动物模型对于明确AD的病因、发病机制及药物的研发等方面起关键作用。本文对Tau蛋白磷酸化致AD主要动物模型的研究进展进行了综述,包括Tau转基因动物模型、激酶和磷酸化酶系统失衡致Tau蛋白过度磷酸化损伤模型、降低Tau蛋白糖基化致Tau过度磷酸化模型等。     

阿尔茨海默病实验动物模型研究进展

阿尔茨海默病（Alzheimer′s Disease,AD）是一种神经退行性疾病,临床表现为认知功能障碍、行为异常及日常生活能力下降;病理学改变包括神经元变性、丢失引起的脑萎缩,神经细胞外老年斑（senile plaque,SP）及细胞内神经纤维缠结（neurofibrillary tangle,NFT）.AD发病机制尚不清楚,因此动物模型的建立对探索其发病机制具有重要意义,就AD实验动物模型研究进展作一综述.     

基于淀粉样蛋白级联假说的阿尔茨海默症防治研究进展

阿尔茨海默症（Alzheimer＇s Disease,AD）是一种中枢神经系统退行性病变,目前发病机制不清。淀粉样蛋白级联假说是有关AD发病机制的主流学说,认为脑内过量产生的β-淀粉样蛋白（β-amyloid peptide,Aβ）是引发AD的主要原因。针对Aβ的生成、聚集、清除及靶向治疗相关的药物开发是目前的研究热点,就淀粉样蛋白级联假说的最新研究进展及AD的预防治疗现状作一综述。     

Ca2＋失调与阿尔茨海默病发生发展关系的研究进展

阿尔茨海默病（Alzheimer’s disease,AD）是全球老年人中最常见的神经退行性疾病。在对家族性AD的动物模型和个别AD患者死后脑组织的研究中发现,除了A1342水平升高外,神经元内Ca2＋信号失调,并且Ca2＋信号蛋白表达水平也发生了改变。淀粉样蛋白斑、神经元纤维缠结和神经元丢失是AD的后期标志,它们的共同点可能是破坏神经元钙离子信号。细胞内钙离子水平提高在功能上与淀粉样蛋白斑、早老素突变、tau缠结和突触功能障碍相关,基于这些研究,产生了AD的Ca2＋假说。主要介绍神经元内Ca2＋失调与AD的关系以及钙拮抗剂作为AD的潜在治疗方法。     

学习和记忆相关基因:Calsyntenins家族

Calsyntenins（Cstn）是一个独特的将胞外蛋白水解活性与胞内Ca^2＋信号转导相连在一起的家族,属于钙结合蛋白,与钙离子结合,参与信号转导和细胞交流。它包括3个成员,分别为calsyntenin-1、calsyntenin-2和calsyntenin-3,皆为突触后膜蛋白,主要在脑的神经元中表达,但表达模式各自不同,而且其蛋白也表现出高度的结构多样性。Calsyntenin-1位于中枢神经系统（CNS）突触后膜,是一个突触后膜蛋白水解的蛋白质。有一个结合钙的胞质酸性结构域,是一个通过胞外蛋白水解来调节突触后钙的动力调节子。Calsyntenin-1调节突触后膜下或胞内Ca^2＋储存库中的Ca^2＋瞬变,从而参与长时程增强（LTP）和长时程抑制（LTD）,与学习和记忆功能紧密相关。尤其是最近研究发现,β淀粉样蛋白前体（APP）和calsyntenins共同作用增加了β淀粉样蛋白（Aβ）的分泌,从而造成神经系统紊乱,促进阿尔采末病（AD）的发生,这对于AD发病机制的揭示和开发新一代治疗AD的药物具有重要的意义。     

阿尔茨海默病的免疫治疗策略及研究进展

阿尔茨海默病（AD）是以认知功能障碍和记忆损害为主要临床特征的神经退行性疾病,其病因复杂,并缺乏有效的诊断、治疗和预防手段。目前,β淀粉样蛋白（Aβ）被认为是AD免疫治疗的关键靶标。研究表明,Aβ可能是各种原因诱发AD的共同通路,是AD形成和发展的关键因素,因此以Aβ为靶标,研制其疫苗和中和抗体来阻断其功能,可能是AD预防和治疗的有效策略。我们对近年来AD的免疫治疗策略及其研究进展进行了综述。     

阿尔茨海默病的非转基因动物模型概述

阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer’s disease, AD)是一种由多种因素引发、在临床上表现为不可逆认知功能下降的神经退行性疾病。AD是当今世界所有国家均面临的一大挑战,其包括遗传型和散发型,其中95%以上的患者为散发型。目前,关于AD发病机制以及药物靶点的研究多在转基因动物模型上展开,此类模型大多根据遗传型AD中出现的基因突变发展而来,只能代表与遗传型AD相关的病例,忽视了后天因素在疾病发生发展过程中的重要推动作用。本综述基于AD发病假说,总结了近期发展的一些非转基因AD动物模型,主要是大、小鼠模型,并讨论了它们的优缺点及应用前景,为科研工作者选择合适的动物模型提供参考和依据。     

转基因肺癌动物模型研究进展

肺癌是世界各国常见的恶性肿瘤,肺癌动物模型在人类肺癌病因、诊断、治疗等方面发挥重要的作用。其中转基因肺癌模型能够更好的模拟肺癌,更有利于肺癌病因及发病过程的研究。本文介绍了近年来转基因肺癌模型的研究进展。     

综述:脑衰老与阿尔茨海默病症状出现前阶段

脑衰老可分为生理性增龄变化与病理性变化,后者与阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer's disease,AD)等神经退行性疾病的发生有关．生理性脑衰老与AD在发病早期具有相似的表现形式、病变特征、生化改变和发病机制．其共同的分子机制是异常蛋白质蓄积,提示两者有着相似的病理学基础,脑衰老可能是AD等神经退行性改变的最初级阶段,病理性脑衰老因素可能促进AD等神经退行性疾病的发生发展．临床前期AD(preclinical AD,PCAD)患者的脑、血液和脑脊液中可以检测到AD特定的生物标记物,但AD的临床症状并没有出现,因此也被称为“症状出现前AD(presymptomatic AD)”．PCAD和对照组比较,氧化应激指标和高度不溶性Aβ42并没有显著性升高,寻找早期PCAD发病过程中新的可用于临床早期诊断的生物标记物、药物靶点将成为我们的关注重点．     

Behavioral phenotypes of amyloid-based genetically modified mouse models of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative affliction of the elderly, presenting with progressive memory loss and dementia and terminating with death. There have been significant advances in understanding the biology and subsequent diagnosis of AD; however, the furious pace of research has not yet translated into a disease-modifying treatment. While scientific inquiry in AD is largely centered on identifying biological players and pathological mechanisms, the day-to-day realities of AD patients and their caregivers revolve around their steady and heartbreaking cognitive decline. In the past decade, AD research has been fundamentally transformed by the development of genetically modified animal models of amyloid-driven neurodegeneration. These important in vivo models not only replicate some of the hallmark pathology of the disease, such as plaque-like amyloid accumulations and astrocytic inflammation, but also some of the cognitive impairments relevant to AD. In this article, we will provide a detailed review of the behavioral and cognitive deficits present in several transgenic mouse models of AD and discuss their functional changes in response to experimental treatments.     

Genetically Modified Pig Models for Human Diseases

Genetically modified animal models are important for understanding the pathogenesis of human disease and developing therapeutic strategies.Although genetically modified mice have been widely used to model human diseases,some of these mouse models do not replicate important disease symptoms or pathology.Pigs are more similar to humans than mice in anatomy,physiology,and genome. Thus,pigs are considered to be better animal models to mimic some human diseases.This review describes genetically modified pigs that have been used to model various diseases including neurological,cardiovascular,and diabetic disorders.We also discuss the development in gene modification technology that can facilitate the generation of transgenic pig models for human diseases.     

Time sequence of oxidative stress in the brain from transgenic mouse models of Alzheimer's disease related to the amyloid-β cascade

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a multifactorial disorder characterized by the presence of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs). Rare early-onset forms of AD are associated with autosomal dominant mutations in the amyloid precursor protein gene, presenilin 1 gene, or presenilin 2 gene. The late-onset form of the disease (LOAD) is the most common form. The causes of LOAD are not yet clarified, but several environmental and genetic risk factors have been identified. Numerous studies have highlighted a role for free radical-mediated injury to brain regions of this illness. In addition, studies from mild cognitive impairment patients suggest that oxidative stress is an early event in the pathogenesis of AD. The associations between these markers of free radical damage and the pathogenic cascades involved in AD are complex. Over the past 2 decades, a number of mouse models have been created to recapitulate the major neuropathological hallmarks of AD, namely amyloid plaques and NFTs. These mice recapitulate many, although not all, of the key features of AD. Some strains of transgenic mice develop amyloid plaques, some accumulate NFTs, and some do both. Here we review the evidence for increased free radical-mediated damage to the brain with particular attention to the stage of the disease in various transgenic models of AD related to the amyloid-β cascade.     

Invertebrate models of Alzheimer's disease

The intensely studied model organisms Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster have been employed to study a number of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD). Although worms and flies are phylogenetically distant from humans, results of both classic genetic analyses and transgenic manipulation of these invertebrates suggest they are valid models for at least some aspects of AD. This review describes the rationale for AD-relevant studies in worms and flies and discusses both what has been learned from these studies and what may be discovered in the future.     

Amyloid precursor protein-mediated free radicals and oxidative damage: implications for the development and progression of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a late-onset dementia that is characterized by the loss of memory and an impairment of multiple cognitive functions. Advancements in molecular, cellular, and animal model studies have revealed that the formation of amyloid beta (Abeta) and other derivatives of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) are key factors in cellular changes in the AD brain, including the generation of free radicals, oxidative damage, and inflammation. Recent molecular, cellular, and gene expression studies have revealed that Abeta enters mitochondria, induces the generation of free radicals, and leads to oxidative damage in post-mortem brain neurons from AD patients and in brain neurons from cell models and transgenic mouse models of AD. In the last three decades, tremendous progress has been made in mitochondrial research and has provided significant findings to link mitochondrial oxidative damage and neurodegenerative diseases such as AD. Researchers in the AD field are beginning to recognize the possible involvement of a mutant APP and its derivatives in causing mitochondrial oxidative damage in AD. This article summarizes the latest research findings on the generation of free radicals in mitochondria and provides a possible model that links Abeta proteins, the generation of free radicals, and oxidative damage in AD development and progression.     

Alzheimer's disease untangled.

The last year has seen major advances in the study of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Four mutations involving amino acid substitutions in exons 16 and 17 of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) gene, have been identified which co-segregate with the disease in some families multiply affected by early onset Alzheimer's disease. These mutations are strongly suggestive of a causative role for the amyloid precursor protein in Alzheimer's disease. Despite their rarity, these mutations are important because they represent the first known cause of Alzheimer's disease. Processing of APP must be central to the pathogenesis of the disease although the precise effects of these amino acid substitutions are not understood. Work is now being undertaken to characterise the processing pathways of APP and to identify other causes of AD. The development of models of AD using the APP mutations offers the possibility of identifying drug targets and developing more effective treatments than are presently available.     

Functional role of TGF beta in Alzheimer's disease microvascular injury: lessons from transgenic mice

Recent studies have implicated pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines as integral to Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis. Among them, transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) is emerging as an important factor in regulating inflammatory responses. This multifunctional cytokine might be centrally involved in several aspects of AD pathogenesis by regulating β-amyloid precursor protein synthesis and processing, plaque formation, astroglial and microglial response and neuronal cell death. Among all of these potential roles, studies in transgenic and infusion animal models have shown that TGF-β may primarily contribute to AD pathogenesis by influencing Aβ production and deposition, which in turn might result in damage to the brain microvasculature. The lessons learned from these models are of great interest not only for understanding of the role of TGF-β in AD, but also for future treatments where testing of anti-inflammatory agents such as ibuprofen and an amyloid vaccine hold great promise. In this regard, further elucidation of the signal pathways by which TGF-β exerts its effect in AD might lead to specific targets for further therapeutic intervention.     

Roles of apolipoprotein E4 (ApoE4) in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease: lessons from ApoE mouse models

ApoE4 (apolipoprotein E4) is the major known genetic risk factor for AD (Alzheimer's disease). In most clinical studies, apoE4 carriers account for 65-80% of all AD cases, highlighting the importance of apoE4 in AD pathogenesis. Emerging data suggest that apoE4, with its multiple cellular origins and multiple structural and biophysical properties, contributes to AD in multiple ways either independently or in combination with other factors, such as Aβ (amyloid β-peptide) and tau. Many apoE mouse models have been established to study the mechanisms underlying the pathogenic actions of apoE4. These include transgenic mice expressing different apoE isoforms in neurons or astrocytes, those expressing neurotoxic apoE4 fragments in neurons and human apoE isoform knock-in mice. Since apoE is expressed in different types of cells, including astrocytes and neurons, and in brains under diverse physiological and/or pathophysiological conditions, these apoE mouse models provide unique tools to study the cellular source-dependent roles of apoE isoforms in neurobiology and in the pathogenesis of AD. They also provide useful tools for discovery and development of drugs targeting apoE4's detrimental effects.     

Simple model systems: a challenge for Alzheimer's disease

ABSTRACT: The success of biomedical researches has led to improvement in human health and increased life expectancy. An unexpected consequence has been an increase of age-related diseases and, in particular, neurodegenerative diseases. These disorders are generally late onset and exhibit complex pathologies including memory loss, cognitive defects, movement disorders and death. Here, it is described as the use of simple animal models such as worms, fishes, flies, Ascidians and sea urchins, have facilitated the understanding of several biochemical mechanisms underlying Alzheimer's disease (AD), one of the most diffuse neurodegenerative pathologies. The discovery of specific genes and proteins associated with AD, and the development of new technologies for the production of transgenic animals, has helped researchers to overcome the lack of natural models. Moreover, simple model systems of AD have been utilized to obtain key information for evaluating potential therapeutic interventions and for testing efficacy of putative neuroprotective compounds.     

Mouse models of Alzheimer's disease: a quest for plaques and tangles

Many genetically altered mice have been designed to help understand the role of specific gene mutations in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) based on the realization that specific mutations in the genes for amyloid precursor protein--the presenilins and tau--are associated with early-onset familial AD or, in the case of tau mutations, other neurodegenerative diseases with neurofibrillary tangles. However, attempts to reproduce the neuropathology of AD in the mouse have been frustrating. Transgenic designs emphasizing amyloid precursor protein produced mice that develop amyloid plaques, but neurodegeneration and neurofibrillary tangles failed to form. Strategies emphasizing tau resulted in increased phosphorylation of tau and tangle formation, although amyloid plaques were absent. Nevertheless, crossing transgenic animals expressing mutated tau and amyloid precursor protein has produced a mouse that closely recapitulates the neuropathology of AD. A review of the various murine models, their role in understanding the pathogenesis of AD and their use in testing therapeutic regimens, is provided.