亚热带八个阔叶林内不同分布型植物的性状和生态习性差异

组成我国亚热带地区植被的植物区系来源多样。为了解共同生活在该地区的不同区系成分间在生态位上存在何种差异,以提高对该地区生物多样性维持机制的认识,该研究以中国亚热带地区8个阔叶林动态样地内木本被子植物群落为研究对象,通过采用谱系线性回归和方差分析(ANOVA)等统计方法,分析了温带和热带分布型属植物在生活史性状(叶习性和生长型)和生态习性(Ellenberg生态指示值)上的差异。结果表明：(1)对于涉及的265个属,分布型属具有一定的谱系保守性(Pagel’s λ=0.935,P<0.001)。(2)温带分布型属含落叶阔叶植物和乔木较多,热带分布型属则以常绿阔叶植物和灌木为主。(3)与热带分布型属植物相比,温带分布型属植物所处环境具有较强光照、较低温度和湿度,且在控制了叶习性和生长型的影响后,两者间的生态习性差异仍然存在。(4)对于所有植物,或者对于不同叶习性和生长型功能群而言,温带与热带分布型属植物的相对优势(物种数的比值)均受到年平均气温的影响。该研究结果有助于理解区系来源对亚热带阔叶林内木本被子植物的生活史性状和生态习性均具有重要影响,以及不同区系来源的植物在我国亚热带阔叶林...     

Untangling ecological complexity on different scales of space and time

Ecological systems are complex and essentially unpredictable, because of the multitude of interactions among their constituents. However, there are general statistical patterns emerging on particular spatial and temporal scales, which indicate the existence of some universal principles behind many ecological phenomena, and which can even be used for the prediction of phenomena occurring on finer scales of resolution. These generalities comprise regular frequency distributions of particular macroscopic variables within higher taxa (body size, abundance, range size), relationships between such variables, and general patterns in species richness. All the patterns are closely related to each other and although there are only a few major explanatory principles, there are plenty of alternative explanations. Reconciliation of different approaches cannot be obtained without careful formulation of testable hypotheses and rigorous quantitative empirical research. Two especially promising ways of untangling ecological complexity comprise: (1) analysis of invariances, i.e. universal quantitative relationships observed within many different systems, and (2) detailed analysis of the anatomy of macroecological phenomena, i.e. explorations of how emergent multispecies patterns are related to regular patterns concerning individual species.

Zusammenfassung

Ökologische Systeme sind komplex und im Wesentlichen aufgrund der Vielzahl von Interaktionen zwischen ihren Bestandteilen nicht vorhersagbar. Dennoch gibt es allgemeine statistische Muster, die in bestimmten räumlichen und zeitlichen Skalen auftreten. Dies weist auf die Existenz von einigen universellen Prinzipien hinter diesen ökologischen Phänomenen hin, die sogar für die Vorhersage von Phänomenen genutzt werden können, die auf kleineren Skalen auftreten. Diese Allgemeingültigkeiten bestehen aus Häufigkeitsverteilungen von bestimmten makroskopischen Variablen innerhalb höherer Taxa (Körpergröße, Abundanz, Arealgröße), den Beziehungen zwischen diesen Variablen und allgemeinen Mustern des Artenreichtums. Alle Muster stehen in enger Beziehung zueinander und obwohl es nur wenige bedeutende Erklärungsprinzipien gibt, existieren viele alternative Erklärungen. Die Abstimmung zwischen verschiedenen Ansätzen kann ohne eine sorgfältige Formulierung von testbaren Hypothesen und rigorose quantitative empirische Forschung nicht erreicht werden. Zwei besonders vielversprechende Wege ökologische Komplexität zu entwirren beinhalten (1) die Analyse von Invarianten, d.h. universellen quantitativen Beziehungen, die innerhalb verschiedener Systeme beobachtet werden, und (2) detaillierte Analysen der Anatomie von makroökologischen Phänomenen, d.h. Untersuchungen darüber, in welcher Beziehung die auftauchenden Muster von Multi-Arten-Systemen zu regulären Mustern individueller Arten stehen.     

Unravelling the correlates of species richness and ecological uniqueness in a metacommunity of urban pond insects

City ponds have the potential to harbour a rich biodiversity of aquatic insects despite being located in an urban landscape. However, our current knowledge on the correlates of pond biodiversity is limited and even less is known about the factors that influence the ecological uniqueness of urban ponds. The multiple environmental gradients, at different spatial scales, that may affect biodiversity and ecological uniqueness of urban ponds can thus be seen both as an opportunity and as a challenge for a study. In this study, we aimed to fill this gap by focusing on aquatic insect assemblages in 51 ponds in the Swedish city of Stockholm, using a metacommunity perspective. We found that species richness was primarily determined by the density of aquatic insects, water depth and proportion of buildings around the pond. The uniqueness of ponds was estimated as local contributions to beta diversity (LCBD), and it was primarily related to the proportion of arable land and industry around the ponds. With regard to the metacommunity we found two interesting patterns. First, there was a negative relationship between richness and LCBD. Second, biodiversity was spatially independent, suggesting that spatially-patterned dispersal did not structure species richness or LCBD. These last two patterns are important when considering conservation efforts of biodiversity in city ponds. We hence suggest that the conservation of insect biodiversity in urban pond should consider the surroundings of the ponds, and that high-richness ponds are not necessarily those that require most attention because they are not ecologically the most unique.     

The growing contributions of molecular biology and immunology to protistan ecology: molecular signatures as ecological tools

Modern genetic and immunological techniques have become important tools for assessing protistan species diversity for both the identification and quantification of specific taxa in natural microbial communities. Although these methods are still gaining use among ecologists, the new approaches have already had a significant impact on our understanding of protistan diversity and biogeography. For example, genetic studies of environmental samples have uncovered many protistan phylotypes that do not match the DNA sequences of any cultured organisms, and whose morphological identities are unknown at the present time. Additionally, rapid and sensitive methods for detecting and enumerating taxa of special importance (e.g. bloom-forming algae, parasitic protists) have enabled much more detailed distributional and experimental studies than have been possible using traditional methods. Nevertheless, while the application of molecular approaches has advanced some aspects of aquatic protistan ecology, significant issues still thwart the widespread adoption of these approaches. These issues include the highly technical nature of some of the molecular methods, the reconciliation of morphology-based and sequence-based species identifications, and the species concept itself.     

Distribution patterns of Batrachium communities in Mediterranean hard waters

The greatest number of Batrachium plant-communities is reached in base-poor waters of SW Europe where most Batrachium species develop laminar leaves. In contrast, base-rich waters of the Western Mediterranean are characterized by few Batrachium communities and by the only one Batrachium species present in the area with only dissected leaves. This work focused initially on studying the water ecology of Iberian Batrachium communities' developing in hard waters in order to seek to what extend the water physical–chemical gradient determines the occurrence of heterophyllous or homophyllous-dissected species. Floristic data and water physical–chemical data were analyzed using multivariate and comparative methods. We found two main types of Batrachium communities: community of Ranunculus trichophyllus – homophyllous and dissected species–, and community of Ranunculus penicillatus – heterophyllous species–. Alkalinity degree is the main factor separating both communities. Our results of a tentative survey on Batrachium composition in hard waters in the Eastern Mediterranean showed a wider range of physical–chemical water features as well as a greater number of Batrachium species with only dissected leaves in comparison to Western Mediterranean. We conclude that high alkalinity is related to the occurrence of Batrachium communities characterized by species with only dissected leaves in both the western and eastern parts of Mediterranean Europe.     

Diversity and productivity of plant communities across the Inland Northwest,USA

No definitive explanation for the form of the relationship between species diversity and ecosystem productivity exists nor is there agreement on the mechanisms linking diversity and productivity across scales. Here, we examine changes in the form of the diversity–productivity relationship within and across the plant communities at three observational scales: plots, alliances, and physiognomic vegetation types (PVTs). Vascular plant richness data are from 4,760 20 m² vegetation field plots. Productivity estimates in grams carbon per square meter are from annual net primary productivity (ANPP) models. Analyses with generalized linear models confirm scale dependence in the species diversity–productivity relationship. At the plot focus, the observed diversity–productivity relationship was weak. When plot data were aggregated to a focus of vegetation alliances, a hump-shaped relationship was observed. Species turnover among plots cannot explain the observed hump-shaped relationship at the alliance focus because we used mean plot richness across plots as our index of species richness for alliances and PVTs. The sorting of alliances along the productivity gradient appears to follow regional patterns of moisture availability, with alliances that occupy dry environments occurring within the increasing phase of the hump-shaped pattern, alliances that occupy mesic to hydric environments occurring near the top or in the decreasing phase of the curve, and alliances that occupy the wettest environments having the fewest species and the highest ANPP. This pattern is consistent with the intermediate productivity theory but appears to be inconsistent with the predictions of water–energy theory.     

Statistical mechanics of myosin molecular motors in skeletal muscles

Statistical mechanics provides the link between microscopic properties of matter and its bulk properties. The grand canonical ensemble formalism was applied to contracting rat skeletal muscles, the soleus (SOL, n = 30) and the extensor digitalis longus (EDL, n = 30). Huxley's equations were used to calculate force (pi) per single crossbridge (CB), probabilities of six steps of the CB cycle, and peak muscle efficiency (Eff(max)). SOL and EDL were shown to be in near-equilibrium (CB cycle affinity 2.5 kJ/mol) and stationary state (linearity between CB cycle affinity and myosin ATPase rate). The molecular partition function (z) was higher in EDL (1.126+/-0.005) than in SOL (1.050+/-0.003). Both pi and Eff(max) were lower in EDL (8.3+/-0.1 pN and 38.1+/-0.2%, respectively) than in SOL (9.2+/-0.1 pN and 42.3+/-0.2%, respectively). The most populated step of the CB cycle was the last detached state (D3) (probability P(D3): 0.890+/-0.004 in EDL and 0.953+/-0.002 in SOL). In each muscle group, both pi and Eff(max) linearly decreased with z and statistical entropy and increased with P(D3). We concluded that statistical mechanics and Huxley's formalism provided a powerful combination for establishing an analytical link between chemomechanical properties of CBs, molecular partition function and statistical entropy.     

Statistical mechanics of relative species abundance

Statistical mechanics of relative species abundance (RSA) patterns in biological networks is presented. The theory is based on multispecies replicator dynamics equivalent to the Lotka–Volterra equation, with diverse interspecies interactions. Various RSA patterns observed in nature are derived from a single parameter related to productivity or maturity of a community. The abundance distribution is formed like a widely observed left-skewed lognormal distribution. It is also found that the “canonical hypothesis” is supported in some parameter region where the typical RSA patterns are observed. As the model has a general form, the result can be applied to similar patterns in other complex biological networks, e.g. gene expression.     

Species richness and composition of amphibians and reptiles in a fragmented forest landscape in northeastern Bolivia

We quantified patterns of species richness and species composition of frogs and reptiles (lizards and snakes) among three habitats (continuous forest, forest islands, and a seasonally flooded savannah) and between forest island size and isolation classes in a floristic transition zone in northeastern Santa Cruz Department, Bolivia. Species richness was similar across macrohabitats, as was faunal composition of forested habitats, although savannah harbored a distinct herpetofauna. On forest islands, richness and composition of forest frogs was largely related to isolation, whereas reptiles were affected by both isolation and habitat. The observation that isolation rather than area was the primary driver of distribution patterns on forest islands stands in contrast to many studies, and may be a function of (1) the greater range in forest island isolation values compared to area or (2) the long history of isolation in this landscape.     

Complexity and stability of ecological networks: a review of the theory

Our planet is changing at paces never observed before. Species extinction is happening at faster rates than ever, greatly exceeding the five mass extinctions in the fossil record. Nevertheless, our lives are strongly based on services provided by ecosystems, thus the responses to global change of our natural heritage are of immediate concern. Understanding the relationship between complexity and stability of ecosystems is of key importance for the maintenance of the balance of human growth and the conservation of all the natural services that ecosystems provide. Mathematical network models can be used to simplify the vast complexity of the real world, to formally describe and investigate ecological phenomena, and to understand ecosystems propensity of returning to its functioning regime after a stress or a perturbation. The use of ecological-network models to study the relationship between complexity and stability of natural ecosystems is the focus of this review. The concept of ecological networks and their characteristics are first introduced, followed by central and occasionally contrasting definitions of complexity and stability. The literature on the relationship between complexity and stability in different types of models and in real ecosystems is then reviewed, highlighting the theoretical debate and the lack of consensual agreement. The summary of the importance of this line of research for the successful management and conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services concludes the review.     

Effects of different management regimes on aquatic macroinvertebrate diversity in Australian rice fields

The maintenance of invertebrate diversity within agricultural environments can enhance a number of agronomically important processes, such as nutrient cycling and biological pest control. However, few Australian studies have been undertaken which specifically address the effects of commercial management regimes on rice field biodiversity. In this study, we compared aquatic macroinvertebrate communities within Australian rice fields cultivated under three commercial management regimes: conventional-aerial (agrochemicals applied, aerially sown), conventional-drill (agrochemicals applied, directly drill-sown) and organic-drill (agrochemical-free, directly drill-sown). These comparisons were undertaken using a combination of community assessment approaches, including morphospecies richness, abundance, diversity and community composition. In general, greater biodiversity existed within macroinvertebrate communities that developed under organic management regimes than under conventional regimes (i.e., higher morphospecies richness and Shannon diversity). Although there were significant differences in several parameters across management regimes early in the rice-growing season, as the growing season progressed the invertebrate communities that developed in the different management regimes became more similar. Only community composition analyses showed significant differences late in the growing season, with functional differences across aquatic faunal assemblages suggested by increased predator abundance in communities sampled from the organic management regime. In order to improve biodiversity within these aquatic environments, management techniques need to be examined individually and the most disruptive processes identified. Alternative management procedures can then be developed that minimise biodiversity loss whilst still delivering required agronomic outcomes.     

Ecological palaeoecology in the neotropical Gran Sabana region: Long-term records of vegetation dynamics as a basis for ecological hypothesis testing

Long-term palaeoecological records are needed to test ecological hypotheses involving time, as short-term observations are of insufficient duration to capture natural variability. In this paper, we review the published palaeoecological evidence for the neotropical Gran Sabana (GS) region, to record the vegetation dynamics and evaluate the potential effects of natural climatic and anthropogenic (notably fire) drivers of change. The time period considered (last 13,000 years) covers major global climate changes and the arrival of humans in the region. The specific points addressed are climate–vegetation equilibrium, reversibility of vegetation changes, the origin of extant biodiversity and endemism patterns and biodiversity conservation in the face of global warming. Vegetation dynamics is reconstructed by pollen analysis and fire incidence is deduced from microscopic charcoal records. Palaeoclimatic inferences are derived from global and regional records using independent physico-chemical evidence to avoid circular reasoning. After analyzing all the long-term records available from both GS uplands and highlands, we conclude that: (1) Upland vegetation (mostly treeless savannas and savanna–forest mosaics, with occasional Mauritia palm swamps) is not in equilibrium with the dominant climates, but largely conditioned by burning practices; (2) a hypothetical natural or “original” vegetation type for these uplands has not been possible to identify due to continuous changes in both climate and human activities during the last 13,000 years; (3) at the time scale studied (millennial), the shift from forest to savanna is abrupt and irreversible due to the existence of tipping points, no matter the cause (natural or anthropogenic); (4) on the contrary, the shift from savanna to palm swamps is reversible at centennial time scales; (5) some of the reconstructed past vegetation types have no modern analogues owing to the individual species response to environmental shifts, leading to variations in community composition; (6) extant biodiversity and endemism patterns are not the result of a long history of topographical isolation, as previously proposed but, rather, the consequence of the action of climatic and palaeogeographic variations; (7) the projected global warming will likely exacerbate the expansion of upland savannas by favouring positive fire-climate feedbacks; (8) in the highlands, extinction by habitat loss will likely affect biodiversity but to a less extent that prognosticated by models based only on present-day climatic features; (9) future highland communities will likely be different to present ones due to the prevalence of individual species responses to global warming; and (10) conservation strategies at individual species level, rather than at community level, are enriched by long-term palaeoecological studies analyzed here. None of these conclusions would have been possible to derive from short-term neoecological observations.     

Diversity patterns in grasslands along a landscape gradient in northwestern France

Abstract. Several measures of biodiversity were calculated (species richness SR, species diversity H', species evenness J', mean similarity, mosaic diversity and factorial diversity) in vascular plant communities along a landscape gradient in the Seine valley, Normandy, France. For these communities, we also recorded environmental and management data. Species and environmental data were analysed simultaneously by Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) in order to study their relationships. CCA identifies one main landscape gradient linked to a set of highly linked ecological factors. Three community types were identified along this gradient: calcicolous communities on chalk slopes, mesophilous communities on colluvium and hydrophilous communities on alluviums. The measures of biodiversity between these groups and their variations along the landscape gradient indicate similar patterns for H', J' and SR. Between‐community biodiversity measures allow consideration of the distribution of species among communities in the landscape. Factorial diversity accounts for the organisation of the communities with reference to the basic mechanisms of species coexistence. Affinity analysis (similarity and mosaic diversity) measures the compositional pattern diversity, which is the function of the variation in species richness. We discuss the indicative versus the predictive value of these measures of biodiversity as regards ecological factors and processes and their application for conservation purposes.     

A comparison of some population density sampling techniques for biodiversity, conservation, and environmental impact studies

Twelve terrestrial and marine studies were conducted at various sites in Malaysia, Brazil, and the United States between April 1999 and February 2004. These data were analyzed using five density estimate techniques for stationary (non-motile) organisms including Stratified Random Sampling, Point-Center Quarter, Third Nearest Object, Weinberg, and Strong. The Strong method gave the most accurate density estimates of stationary animals and plants. Stratified Random Sampling ranked second best and the Third Nearest Object the third best. Belt or strip transects may be preferable but can be restrictive in some situations because of logistics and associated time constraints. Straight line measurements on reefs were 3–27% more accurate than reef slack line and reef contour measurements. Most study areas measured with the standardized Morisita index of dispersion were moderately aggregated. Results from the Third Nearest Object and Point-Center Quarter techniques indicate that the addition of more data to establish a density correction factor does not necessarily give more accurate estimates of density.     

Blood parasites of blue grouse: variation in prevalence and patterns of interspecific association

Blood parasites of blue grouse (Dendragapus obscurus) were sampled and the factors responsible for variation in prevalence of blood parasites, and patterns of association among parasite species, were investigated. Five genera of haematozoa were surveyed including four protozoans (Haemoproteus, Leucocytozoon, Plasmodium, and Trypanosoma) and a nematode (Splendidofilaria). Prevalence of blood parasites varied significantly between years; sexes differed in number of parasite species in one of two years. Both positive and negative overall associations among all parasites were found when variance-ratio tests were used indicating that blood parasites often were not independent of one another. In general, Leucocytozoon and Trypanosoma often co-occurred; the strongest associations between these two parasites appeared in samples of hosts most heavily infected by other parasites. Negative associations between parasite species always involved Haemoproteus. Associations between pairs of species did not account wholly for overall patterns of associations within the parasite assemblage. Studies of associations within blood parasite assemblages are important for understanding the ecology of haemotropic infections and for clucidating the need for multi-parasite models of parasite-host interactions.     

Reinterpreting maximum entropy in ecology: a null hypothesis constrained by ecological mechanism

Simplified mechanistic models in ecology have been criticised for the fact that a good fit to data does not imply the mechanism is true: pattern does not equal process. In parallel, the maximum entropy principle (MaxEnt) has been applied in ecology to make predictions constrained by just a handful of state variables, like total abundance or species richness. But an outstanding question remains: what principle tells us which state variables to constrain? Here we attempt to solve both problems simultaneously, by translating a given set of mechanisms into the state variables to be used in MaxEnt, and then using this MaxEnt theory as a null model against which to compare mechanistic predictions. In particular, we identify the sufficient statistics needed to parametrise a given mechanistic model from data and use them as MaxEnt constraints. Our approach isolates exactly what mechanism is telling us over and above the state variables alone.     

Key ecological research questions for Central European forests

Forests are under pressure from accelerating global change. To cope with the multiple challenges related to global change but also to further improve forest management we need a better understanding of (1) the linkages between drivers of ecosystem change and the state and management of forest ecosystems as well as their capacity to adapt to ongoing global environmental changes, and (2) the interrelationships within and between the components of forest ecosystems. To address the resulting challenges for the state of forest ecosystems in Central Europe, we suggest 45 questions for future ecological research. We define forest ecology as studies on the abiotic and biotic components of forest ecosystems and their interactions on varying spatial and temporal scales. Our questions cover five thematic fields and correspond to the criteria selected for describing the state of Europe’s forests by policy makers, i.e. biogeochemical cycling, mortality and disturbances, productivity, biodiversity and biotic interactions, and regulation and protection. We conclude that an improved mechanistic understanding of forest ecosystems is essential for the further development of ecosystem-oriented multifunctional forest management in the face of accelerating global change.     

Broad‐scale ecological implications of ectothermy and endothermy in changing environments

Aim Physiology is emerging as a basis for understanding the distribution and diversity of organisms, and ultimately for predicting their responses to climate change. Here we review how the difference in physiology of terrestrial vertebrate ectotherms (amphibians and reptiles) and endotherms (birds and mammals) is expected to influence broad‐scale ecological patterns. Location Global terrestrial ecosystems. Methods We use data from the literature and modelling to analyse geographic gradients in energy use and thermal limits. We then compare broad‐scale ecological patterns for both groups with expectations stemming from these geographic gradients. Results The differences in thermal physiology between ectotherms and endotherms result in geographically disparate macrophysiological constraints. Field metabolic rate (FMR) is stable or decreases slightly with temperature for endotherms, while it generally increases for ectotherms, leading to opposing latitudinal gradients of expected FMR. Potential activity time is a greater constraint on the distributions of ectotherms than endotherms, particularly at high latitudes. Differences in the primary correlates of abundance and species richness for two representative taxonomic groups are consistent with the consequences of these basic physiological differences. Ectotherm richness is better predicted by temperature, whereas endotherm richness is more strongly associated with primary productivity. Finally, in contrast to endotherms, ectotherm richness is not strongly related to abundance. Main conclusions Differences in thermal physiology affect how organisms interact with and are constrained by their environment, and may ultimately explain differences in the geographic pattern of biodiversity for endotherms and ectotherms. Linking the fields of physiological and broad‐scale ecology should yield a more mechanistic understanding of how biodiversity will respond to environmental change.