Community dynamics of evergreen broadleaf forests in southwestern Japan. I. Wind damaged trees and canopy gaps in an evergreen oak forest

The rates of treefall and canopy opening in the evergreen oak forest in southwestern Japan were determined by studying the number and size distribution of overstory trees, wind damaged trees, and canopy gaps in a belt transect in the Kasugayama Forest Reserve in Nara City. Thirty three percent of the overstory trees wereCastanopsis cuspidata. The total area of canopy gaps was about 20% of the total land area in the study area. The ages of the gaps were determined by counting the annual rings of various kinds of trees growing in gaps. By comparing gap ages with meteorological data, it became evident that gap formation was mainly caused by strong typhoons. The mean time interval between strong typhoons visiting the forest reserve, 6.57 years, was determined by applying the MNY method to the meteorological data. The treefall rate and the mean area of canopy openings per year were 0.84 overstory trees/ha·year and 55.6 m²/ha·year, respectively. The mean residence time of the forest canopy was about 180 years.     

Community dynamics of evergreen broadleaf forests in southwestern Japan. II. Species composition and density of seeds buried in the soil of a climax evergreen oak forest

The species composition and density of seeds in the soil of a climax evergeen oak forest in the Kasugayama Forest Reserve, Nara, Japan were studied by directly extracting seeds from soil samples and using soil samples in planting boxes as the basis of germination tests. A total of 33 species were identified from all seeds collected in 6 stands: 11 evergreen broadleaf, 15 deciduous broadleaf, 2 coniferous, 2 liana, 1 herb, and 2 grass species. Species producing sap fruits and dry fruits accounted for 60% and 40% of the total number of species, respectively. The species composition of all the seeds was independent of the species composition of the forest vegetation. The mean density of the seeds was 22,134 seeds/m²·5 cm.Eurya japonica, of which seeds were found in all soil samples, was the most abundant species, followed byCryptomeria japonica, Ilex micrococca, andBoehmeria longispica. Pioneer species such asMallotus japonicus, Zanthoxylum ailanthoides, andAralia elata were found in all soil samples in spite of the paucity of adult trees in the forest. Seeds of evergreen oaks were relatively aboundant but no viable seeds were found. ViableE. japonica, I. micrococca, Symplocos prunifolia, andB. longispica seeds were abundant.     

Structure and regeneration of canopy species in an old-growth evergreen broad-leaved forest in Aya district,southwestern Japan

The population structure and regeneration of canopy species were studied in a 4 ha plot in an old-growth evergreen broad-leaved forest in the Aya district of southwestern Japan. The 200 m × 200 m plot contained 50 tree species, including 22 canopy species, 3,904 trees (dbh5 cm) and a total basal area of 48.3 m²/ha. Forty one gaps occurred within the plot, and both the average gap size (67.3 m²) and the total area of gap to plot area (6.9%) were small. Species found in the canopy in the plot were divided into three groups (A, B, C) based on size and spatial distribution patterns, and density in each tree size. Group A (typical species: Distylium racemosum, Persea japonica) showed a high density, nearly random distribution and an inverse J-shaped size distribution. Species in group B (Quercus salicina, Quercus acuta, Quercus gilva) were distributed contagiously with conspicuous concentration of small trees (<5 cm dbh) around gaps. However, the species in this group included few trees likely to reach the canopy in the near future. Group C included fast-growing pioneer and shade intolerant species (e.g. Cornus controversa, Carpinus tschonoskii, Fagara ailanthoides), which formed large clumps. Most gaps were not characterized by successful regeneration of group B and C but did appear to accelerate the growth of group A. Group B species appear to require long-lived or large gaps while group C species require large, catastrophic disturbances, such as landslides, for regeneration.     

Gap characteristics and gap regeneration in primary evergreen broad-leaved forests of western Japan

Gap characteristics and regeneration in gaps were studied in some primary evergreen broad-leaved forests of the warm temperate zone in western Japan. Total observed 161 gaps covered 15.7% of the total land area of 8.23 ha. Gap density was 19. 6 gaps ha⁻¹ and mean gap size was 80.3 m². Smaller gaps (<80 m²) were much more frequent than larger ones, and gaps larger than 400 m² were rare. Gaps created by the death or the injury of single trees were 79.5%. Canopy trees died most often with broken trunks and not so often by uprooting or leaving standing-dead. Different types of gap regeneration behaviour were recognized among the major canopy tree species, though gap regeneration of the common evergreen broad-leaved tree species did not clearly depend on a species-specific gap size.Distylium racemosum, which occurred in equal importance (about 25%) in the canopy layer of each study stand, regenerates in gaps from saplings recruited before gap creation and can replace not only its own gaps but also gaps of other species. Therefore, it can be considered a typical climax species in this forest type of western Japan.Persea thunbergii, which can reproduce vegetatively, showed a similar type of gap regeneration behaviour.Castanopsis cuspidata can replace itself with relatively higher frequency by means of vegetative reproduction (stump sprouting) after gap creation.Quercus acuta andQuercus salicina did not regenerate under the current gap-disturbance regime. Though the frequency of uprooting is low, soil disturbance by uprooting seems to be important for the perpetuation of the pioneer tree species,Fagara ailanthoides, which recruits from buried seeds in the soil     

Intraspecific sequence variation of chloroplast DNA among the component species of evergreen broad-leaved forests in Japan

For the purpose of phylogeographic study of lucidophyllous (evergreen broad-leaved) forests in Japan, we surveyed intraspecific chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) variation in 41 component species of such forests. Intraspecific cpDNA variations were detected in 14 species. In 15 species and one species group, 16 non-coding cpDNA regions were examined to find intraspecific sequence variation. The extent of variation in these regions was compared. The largest amount of intraspecific variation was detected in the rps16 region. A relatively large amount of intraspecific variation was detected in the petD-rpoA, rpl16, and trnL-F regions. It is suggested that these regions of cpDNA would be useful for detecting intraspecific variation in plant species, and could provide valuable information for various research purposes.     

中国常绿阔叶林8大动态监测样地植被的综合比较

本文通过汇总中国常绿阔叶林8大动态监测样地的植物名录,在规整植物名称的基础上,统计了8大样地的植物种类组成,比较了它们的相似性及其与环境立地的关系。利用生长型和生态指示值,分析了8大样地组成植物的生态特征及其与生境的联系。从区系组成和生态特征看,8大样地可分为两组,一组包括天童、古田山、百山祖、八大公山,属于典型常绿阔叶林;另一组包括黑石顶、鼎湖山、福山、莲花池,属于季节常绿阔叶林和适雨常绿阔叶林(亚热带雨林)。另外还讨论了动态观测样地的群落类型划分问题。最后提出的建议是:增加草本和藤本植物调查,重视植物分类和生态指示值及种间相互关系的研究,更为重要的是制定长期的协作研究计划。     

哀牢山中山湿性常绿阔叶林林窗更新研究

对云南哀牢山中山湿性常绿阔叶林林窗更新状况的调查结果表明,林内优势树种在林窗阶段不占优势,其在林窗内的重要值显著低于成熟林分;林窗内外的乔木幼苗在组成上存在较大差异,林窗内的幼苗多样性(H=2．73,D=0．89)高于林冠下(H=2．25,D=0．82),二者的Jaccard相似系数只有0．6．许多树种的幼苗只出现在林窗内;林窗内的乔木幼苗密度(38636株·hm²)远远高于林冠下(17323株·hm²)．林窗内和林冠下的乔木幼苗(H≤50cm)均以高度为11～20cm幼苗的在数量上占优势,但林窗内高度超过20cm的幼苗比例明显高于林冠下;林窗大小对乔木幼苗更新有重要影响,不同树种的幼苗密度高峰出现在不同大小级别的林窗内．     

云南常绿阔叶林的植被地理研究

云南具有极其丰富的生物多样性和以常绿阔叶林为优势的植被类型。该研究利用6个基于样方层面的1 hm²样地资料, 以及通过对整个植被类型的植物区系的调查, 对云南常绿阔叶林植被型的3个植被亚型(季风常绿阔叶林、半湿润常绿阔叶林和中山湿性常绿阔叶林)的生态外貌特征、植物区系组成及其生物地理演化进行了研究。在样方层面, 尽管这3个常绿阔叶林在树种组成上优势种均为壳斗科、樟科和山茶科植物, 但它们在种类组成、多样性、生态外貌和生物地理特征上呈现多样化。分布在南部及西南部的季风常绿阔叶林物种组成极其丰富, 具有热带森林的生态外貌, 并以热带亚洲分布种为优势种。主要分布在云南高原的半湿润常绿阔叶林和云南中部和北部山地的中山湿性常绿阔叶林具有亚热带常绿阔叶林的生态外貌特征和以中国-喜马拉雅及中国特有种占优势, 是中国西南独特的植被类型。在植被亚型层面, 这3个常绿阔叶林的植物区系(包括所有生活型的种子植物)中种数最多的科, 按地理成分均为世界分布型的科, 含种数较少的科则为其他各种分布型的科。半湿润常绿阔叶林和中山湿性常绿阔叶林的植物区系, 热带分布属分别占总属数的44.91%和44.04%, 温带分布属占46.29%和48.19%, 其中北温带分布属比例最高, 分别为18.36%和19.95%。季风常绿阔叶林植物区系则显示了不同的地理成分格局: 热带分布属占总属数的78.05%, 并以热带亚洲分布属占最高比例。通过对这3个常绿阔叶林的比较发现, 半湿润常绿阔叶林和中山湿性常绿阔叶林除生态外貌特征有一定区别外, 在植物区系组成和地理成分上很接近, 它们在种的组成上, 与季风常绿阔叶林的类似性仅为17.1%和15.4%。季风常绿阔叶林因其在植物区系和生态外貌上与后二者区别明显, 建议在云南植被分类上划分一个独立的植被型, 它是东南亚低山常绿阔叶林分布在中国西南部热带北缘山地的一个植被类型。结合云南的地质历史和古植物学资料, 认为云南的常绿阔叶林及其植物区系受晚中新世以来的地质历史事件深刻影响。半湿润常绿阔叶林是中国西南独特而特有种丰富的植被类型, 由于严重的人为干扰破坏, 现已片段化或成为萌生灌丛状, 应给予优先保护。     

Litter dynamics in post-fire successional forests of Quercus ilex

Forest floor regeneration after fire in a holm oak forest was studied in a chronosequence in Catalonia (NE Spain). The sampled area represented situations of high fire disturbance because of the frequency of wildfires and the high impact of erosive processes. Forest floor bulk samples from the L, F and H layers were taken in 5 burned plots, aging from 0 to 35 years. They were analyzed for dry standing weight, and organic carbon and N content.Plant cover reached almost 100% two years after the fire. During the first 20 years, shrubs and herbs had the highest surface covering, and thereafter, holm oaks became dominant.Holm oak litterfall stabilized by the fourth year after burning.The major shrub species which were present in the chronosequence had two different patterns with respect to nitrogen: 1) a low litter C/N ratio (i.e. nitrogen fixing species); 2) a high litter C/N ratio.The litter decay coefficients were relatively high, allowing for a rapid structuration and formation of the L and F layers after the fire. Indeed, 95% of the maximum steady standing weight accumulates in 8–9 years. The pattern of cover in the different strata influenced the lateral distribution and variable accumulation of the forest floor layers and determined different turnover rates.     

瓦屋山中亚热带湿性常绿阔叶林的林窗形成特征

调查了瓦屋山原生和次生的中亚热带性常绿阔叶林的林窗形成特征,并对林窗形成特征,林窗制造者的死亡方式和原因进行了探讨,结果表明,次生常绿阔叶林林窗面积均＜10m^2,1hm^2仅9个,林下更新不明显,原生林林窗密度为1hm^215个,＜40m^2的林窗占56％,＞100m^2的林窗只有4个,林窗平均面积59m^2,扩展林窗平均面积105m^2,林窗和扩展林窗总面积占被调查林分的比例分别为11．1％和19．8％,林窗大小分布表现出负指数分布,即小林窗多,大林窗少,林窗形状的变异较大,大多数因边界木的多少而成不规则的多边形,大多数林窗是多个林木死亡事件的结果,因而大多数林窗有两个或两个以上的林窗制造者,各林窗年龄大多数在10a以上,最近形成的林窗极少,估计林窗表成率是0.01.a^-1,采用样地投影调查方法可提高测定精度,便于不同调查林分结果的有效比较,常绿阔叶林林窗形成原因较为复杂,小径木的死亡是竞争被压所致,而大径的较高冠层木的死亡则可能是树木生长发育以及与地形,风等自然因子相互作用的结果。     

Surface area of woody organs of an evergreen broadleaf forest tree in Japan and Southeast Asia

Architecture of evergreen broadleaf trees in evergreen warm-temperate and tropical forests was analyzed with a ratio (U/Ac) of total surface area of aboveground woody organs to leaf area (one-sided surface area) of each felled tree. The ratio,U/Ac, tended to decrease with the increasing ofdbh. There was little difference in a range of the ratio at eachdbh class between a warmtemperate forest and a tropical rainforest. The ratios of larger trees correlated with their relative growth rates ofdbh among similar sized trees. Canopy trees tended to stop their growth at some value of a ratio, a threshold value being about 1.5, irrespective of forest types. The threshold value showed the critical condition that annual respiration of woody organs of a tree consumed nearly all surplus production. On the basis of the pipe model, an ideal maximum tree height was considered with the ratio, and was estimated at 110 m and 70 m in a tropical rainforest and a warm-temperate forest, respectively.     

Stand structure and woody species diversity in relation to stand stratification in a subtropical evergreen broadleaf forest, Okinawa Island

Stand structure and woody species diversity in a subtropical evergreen broadleaf forest grown in a silicate habitat, Okinawa Island, have been investigated on the basis of stand stratification. The forest stand consisted of four layers. The floristic composition of the top and the lower three layers was only slightly similar, although approximately one-third of the species were common to them. Mean tree weight decreased from the top toward the bottom layer whereas tree density increased from the top downward. This trend resembled the mean weight–density trajectory of self-thinning plant populations. The relationship between mean tree height and tree density for the upper two layers supported Yamakuras quasi –1/2 power law of tree height. The values of the Shannon–Wiener index, H, and the equitability index, J, tended to increase from the top layer downward except for the bottom layer. The values of H and J were, respectively, 4.83 bit and 0.82 for trees taller than 0.10 m. The lower layers contained many species of smaller height. High species diversity of the forest depended on small trees in the lower layers. Conservation of small trees in the lower layers, especially the bottom layer, is indispensable for sound maintenance of Okinawan evergreen broadleaf forests.     

哀牢山亚热带常绿阔叶林乔木碳储量及固碳增量

为了解哀牢山亚热带常绿阔叶林的乔木碳储量及其固碳增量,利用2005和2008年的植被调查数据,对哀牢山3种主要常绿阔叶林的乔木碳储量及其固碳增量进行了分析。结果表明:原生的中山湿性常绿阔叶林、滇山杨次生林和旱冬瓜次生林的乔木碳储量分别为257.90、222.95和105.39tC·hm-2;中山湿性常绿阔叶林乔木碳储量主要存储在DBH≥91cm的乔木中(34.68%);而次生林的乔木碳储量主要分布在径级21cm≤DBH41cm的乔木中(滇山杨林77.29%;旱冬瓜林69.28%)。由此可见,哀牢山地区原生的中山湿性常绿阔叶林乔木层在碳蓄积方面占主导优势。哀牢山亚热带常绿阔叶林的3个森林类型乔木层均具有固碳增量,即使是原生的中山湿性常绿阔叶林,其乔木层年平均固碳增量也达2.47tC·hm-2·a-1;次生林乔木层的年平均固碳增量约为原生林的2倍,显示了哀牢山亚热带常绿阔叶林乔木层具有较强的碳汇增量。初步估算,哀牢山亚热带常绿阔叶林林区内每年乔木固碳增量为8.52×104tC·a-1。     

四川都江堰地区桢楠林、杉木林和常绿阔叶林土壤N库的季节变化

通过对四川都江堰地区桢楠（Phoebe zhennan）林、杉木（Cunninghamia lanceolata（Lamb．））林以及常绿阔叶林为期1a的研究,比较不同森林群落类型中N库各组分的大小以及季节动态,同时研究不同群落类型中N库各组分之间的关系,探讨植被、土壤特性以及微生物对N转化的影响。结果表明：①3种群落类型中土壤NH4^＋-N含量有明显的季节变化,均在冬季（12月份）达到最大。随着植物的生长,NH4^＋-N含量逐渐下降;②3种类型的群落土壤中NO3^--N含量的平均值差别很大,同一个森林群落类型在不同季节NO3^--N含量有明显的季节变化,但并不是所有的季节之间都存在显著差异;③3种森林群落类型在采样期内的土壤平均全N含量存在显著差别,在不同季节,土壤全N含量变化并不大;④微生物量N在采样期内的波动很大,就每个样地来说也具有一定的规律。得出的结论认为：不同的森林群落类型中的N循环同该群落内的土壤和植被类型有密切的联系,土壤微生物量N同环境因素（土壤温度和湿度）的关系存在时空变化。     

南岭大顶山常绿阔叶林群落结构及其物种多样性

南岭国家级自然保护区位于欧亚大陆东南部的亚热带和热带区域,是广东省天然的绿色屏障。根据在南岭大顶山建立的1hm²生物多样性监测研究永久样地的调查,对样地所在的植物群落的结构、物种组成和植物物种多样性进行了分析研究。结果表明,该群落属于中亚热带常绿阔叶林,应称为华润楠(Machilus chinensis)、仁昌厚壳桂(Cryptocarya chingii)-山羡叶泡花树(Meliosma thorelii)群落。该群落结构复杂,各层次的代表种类明显。植物物种多样性丰富,特别是乔木层(DBH>1CM)的1hm²物种数达163种,高于亚热带其它地区的森林群落。各个层次中,以层间植物的多样性指数最高,乔木层次之,草本层最低。究其原因是层间植物的均匀度指数较高。因此,该森林群落具有重要的保护价值,应该加强其物种维持机制的深入研究。     

Climate and vegetation in China V. Effect of climatic factors on the upper limit of distribution of evergreen broadleaf forest

In order to clarify correlations between the upper limit of distribution of evergreen broadleaf forest and climatic factors, 62 stands distributed at the upper limit of the forest were collected from various parts of China, and their thermal and precipitation factors were estimated. Among six thermal climatic indices, i.e., warmth index (WI), coldness index (CI) and annual mean (AMT), January mean (JMT), mean minimum (MMT) and minimum (MT) temperatures, the CI at the stands showed the smallest range of variance, and it was therefore considered to be the most significant for interpreting the upward distribution of the forest. However, the distribution of the forest in mountain areas in southwestern China could not be explained by lower temperatures in winter such as CI but by a cumulative temperature such as WI. The continentality and precipitation factors were also important for delimiting the distribution of the forest. In addition, the relation between the distribution of the forest and the MMT was noted, and it was concluded that the MMT was an effective thermal index for explaining the upper limit of distribution of evergreen broadleaf forest in China.     

Ecology of subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forests of Yunnan,southwestern China as compared to those of southwestern Japan

Subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forests of Yunnan, China, including mid-montane moist, monsoon, and semi-humid categories, were studied in terms of ecological attributes of pertinent species, diversity, structure, dynamics and succession, as compared with the subtropical/warm-temperate evergreen broad-leaved rain forest of southwestern (SW) Japan. The genera and species of the forests of Yunnan and SW Japan are East Asian elements and indicate a very close relationship between the respective floras, though different assemblages of species occur in the two regions. Diversity indices and numerical data on taxon richness at family, genus and species level were similar in both regions. Four types of gap-regeneration behaviors among the major tree species were recognized in the two areas. In both, as a result of long-term human activity, the plant communities ranged from pioneer deciduous broad-leaved and/or pioneer coniferous stands to late-successional evergreen broad-leaved stands. Succession in the two regions followed parallel paths, beginning with pioneer Alnus in Yunnan and Alnus, Mallotus and Styrax in Japan, accompanied by coniferous Pinus in the two areas, and with late-successional evergreen broad-leaved Cyclobalanopsis and Castanopsis as their final stage. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Fine root dynamics in two tropical dry evergreen forests in southern India

Seasonality in fine root standing crop and production was studied in two tropical dry evergreen forests viz., Marakkanam reserve forest (MRF) and Puthupet sacred grove (PSG) in the Coromandel coast of India. The study extended from December 89 to December 91 in MRF and from August 90 to December 91 in PSG with sampling at every 2 months. Total fine interval. Mean fine root standing crop was 134 g m⁻² in MRF and 234 g m⁻² in PSG. root production was 104 g m⁻² yr⁻¹ in MRF and 117 g m⁻² yr⁻¹ in PSG. These estimates lie within the range for fine roots reported for various tropical forests. Rootmass showed a pronounced seasonal pattern with unimodal peaks obtained during December in the first year and from October–December in the second year in MRF. In PSG greater rootmass was noticed from June–October than other times of sampling. The total root mass in MRF ranged from 114 to 145 g m−2 at the 13 sampling dates in the three sites. The live biomass fraction of fine roots in MRF ranged from 46 to 203 g m⁻² and in PSG it ranged from 141 to 359 g mm⁻² during the study periods. The dead necromass fraction of fine roots ranged from 6 to 37 g m⁻² in MRF and from 12 to 66 g m⁻² in PSG. Fine root production peaked during December in both the forest sites. The necromass fraction of newly produced roots was negligible. Total N was slightly greater in PSG than in MRF. Whereas total P level was almost similar in both the sites. The study revealed that season and site characteristics influenced fine root system.