Bony‐toothed birds (Aves: Pelagornithidae) from the Middle Eocene of Belgium

Abstract: We describe well‐preserved remains of the Pelagornithidae (bony‐toothed birds) from the middle Eocene of Belgium, including a sternum, pectoral girdle bones and humeri of a single individual. The specimens are tentatively assigned to Macrodontopteryx oweni Harrison and Walker, 1976 , which has so far only been known from the holotype skull and a referred proximal ulna. Another species, about two times larger, is represented by an incomplete humerus and tentatively identified as Dasornis emuinus ( Bowerbank, 1854 ). The fossils provide critical new data on the osteology of the pectoral girdle of bony‐toothed birds. For the first time, the sternum of one of the smaller species is preserved, and this bone exhibits a more plesiomorphic morphology than the recently described sternum of the giant Miocene taxon Pelagornis. The coracoid resembles that of the Diomedeidae (albatrosses) in overall morphology, but because bony‐toothed birds lack apomorphies of the Procellariiformes, the similarities are almost certainly owing to convergence. Bony‐toothed birds were often compared with the ‘Pelecaniformes’ by previous authors, who especially made comparisons with the Sulidae (gannets and boobies). However, the coracoid distinctly differs from that of extant ‘pelecaniform’ birds, and the plesiomorphic presence of a foramen nervi supracoracoidei as well as the absence of a well‐delimited articulation facet for the furcula supports a position outside the Suloidea, the clade to which the Sulidae belong.     

Middle Eocene Pelagornithidae and Gaviiformes (Aves) from the Ukrainian Paratethys

Abstract: We describe avian remains from Novopskov, a new middle Eocene marine locality in Ukraine. The fossils constitute the most substantial collection of Palaeogene bird bones from Eastern Europe and contribute to a better knowledge of the Paratethyan seabird fauna. Most of the specimens belong to Pelagornithidae (bony‐toothed birds), and two species of very different size can be distinguished. The larger of these is tentatively referred to Dasornis sp., the smaller to Odontopteryx toliapica. The specimens include skeletal elements that were not described for Palaeogene bony‐toothed birds and document previously unknown morphological differences between Palaeogene and Neogene Pelagornithidae. It is argued that the purported crane Eobalearica tugarinovi, from the middle Eocene of Kyrgyzstan, is probably also a bony‐toothed bird. A new genus and species of small Gaviiformes, Colymbiculus udovinchenkoi, is described, which is the earliest fossil record of a loon from Europe, preceding the next oldest specimens by more than 10 myr. The Ukrainian fossils document profound differences between middle Eocene and extant marine avifaunas of Europe, and whereas the middle Eocene Paratethyan avifauna appears to have been similar to that of the North Sea with regard to pelagornithid diversity, the absence of prophaethontids and relative abundance of Gaviiformes may indicate faunistic differences concerning the remaining seabirds.     

Cenozoic mystery birds – on the phylogenetic affinities of bony‐toothed birds (Pelagornithidae)

Mayr, G. (2011) Cenozoic mystery birds – on the phylogenetic affinities of bony‐toothed birds (Pelagornithidae). —Zoologica Scripta, 40, 448–467. The extinct Cenozoic bony‐toothed birds (Pelagornithidae) are characterized by the occurrence of unique spiky projections of the osseous jaws and are among the most distinctive neornithine taxa. Earlier authors considered these marine birds to be most closely related to ‘Pelecaniformes’ or Procellariiformes, but recent phylogenetic analyses resulted in a sister group relationship to Anseriformes. This latter hypothesis was, however, coupled with a non‐monophyly of galloanserine or even neognathous birds, which is not supported by all other current analyses. The character evidence for anseriform affinities of pelagornithids is thus reassessed, and it is detailed that the alleged apomorphies cannot be upheld. Pelagornithids lack some key apomorphies of galloanserine birds, and analysis of 107 anatomical characters did not support anseriform affinities, but resulted in a sister group relationship between Pelagornithidae and Galloanseres. By retaining a monophyletic Galloanseres, this result is in better accordance with widely acknowledged hypotheses on the higher‐level phylogeny of birds. The (Pelagornithidae + Galloanseres) clade received, however, only weak bootstrap support, and some characters, such as the presence of an open frontoparietal suture, may even support a position of Pelagornithidae outside crown‐group Neognathae.     

A new basal ornithuromorph bird (Aves: Ornithothoraces) from the Early Cretaceous of China with implication for morphology of early Ornithuromorpha

Ornithuromorpha is the most derived avian group in the Early Cretaceous, advanced members of which encompass all living birds (Neornithes). Here we report on a new basal ornithuromorph bird, Bellulia rectusunguis gen. et sp. nov., represented by a nearly complete skeleton from the Early Cretaceous Jehol Biota in northeastern China. A comprehensive phylogenetic analysis resolved the new taxon in a basal position that is only more derived than Archaeorhynchus and Jianchangornis among ornithuromorphs, increasing the morphological diversity of basal ornithuromorphs. The new specimen has a V‐shaped furcula with a short hypocleidium, a feature otherwise known only in Schizooura among Cretaceous ornithuromorphs. We discuss the implications of the new taxon on the evolution of morphology of primitive ornithuromorphs, particularly of pectoral girdle, sternum and limb proportion pertaining to powered flight. The preserved gastroliths and pedal morphology indicate herbivory and lakeshore adaption for this new species. © 2015 The Linnean Society of London     

Neurocranial osteology and systematic relationships of Varanus (Megalania) prisca Owen, 1859 (Squamata: Varanidae)

The neurocranial osteology of the giant monitor lizard Varanus (Megalania) prisca Owen, 1859 is described in detail for the first time. Optimization of neurocranial characters onto phylogenetic topologies for varanoids, including Lanthanotus, Heloderma, and Varanus species nests V. prisca within an Indo‐Australian clade of Varanus on the basis of characters of the otic capsule. A sister‐taxon relationship between V. prisca and Varanus komodoensis Ouwens, 1912 is proposed based on apomorphies of the crista prootica, fenestra vestibuli, occipital recess, and supraoccipital. These results support a monophyletic clade of giant monitors among Indo‐Australian species, and unambiguously synonymize Megalania with Varanus at both generic and subgeneric levels. © 2009 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2009, 155 , 445–457.     

A complex hyobranchial apparatus in a Cretaceous dinosaur and the antiquity of avian paraglossalia

The highly specialized feeding apparatus of modern birds is characterized in part by paraglossalia, triangular bones or cartilages in the tongue that constitute part of the rarely fossilized hyobranchial apparatus. Here, we report on a new, juvenile specimen of the ankylosaurid dinosaur Pinacosaurus grangeri Gilmore, 1933 that provides the first evidence of paraglossalia outside of crown group Aves. The specimen is remarkable in preserving a well‐ossified hyobranchial apparatus, including paired paraglossalia, first and second ceratobranchials, epibranchials, and evidence of a median cartilaginous basihyal. Reassessment of Edmontonia, another ankylosaur, also reveals evidence of bony paraglossalia. Ankylosaur paraglossalia closely resemble those of birds, but are relatively larger and bear prominent muscle scars, supporting the hypothesis that ankylosaurs had fleshy, muscular tongues. The other hyobranchial elements, surprisingly, resemble those of terrestrially feeding salamanders. Ankylosaurs had reduced, slowly replacing teeth, as evidenced from dental histology, suggesting that they relied greatly on their tongues and hyobranchia for feeding. Some curved, rod‐like elements of other dinosaur hyobranchia are reinterpreted as second ceratobranchials, rather than first ceratobranchials as commonly construed. Ankylosaurs provide rare fossil evidence of deep homology in vertebrate branchial arches and expose severe biases against the preservation and collection of the hyobranchial apparatus. In light of these biases, we hypothesize that paraglossalia were present in the common ancestor of Dinosauria, indicating that some structures of the highly derived avian feeding apparatus were in place by the Triassic Period. © 2015 The Linnean Society of London     

Phylogenetic affinities and taxonomy of the Oligocene Diomedeoididae,and the basal divergences amongst extant procellariiform birds

The Palaeogene Diomedeoididae are amongst the earliest representatives of procellariiform birds (albatrosses, tubenoses, and allies). Although several fossils of these birds have been reported in the past, many details of their osteology remained unknown. Here we describe a comprehensive collection of diomedeoidid fossils from the Rupelian stratotype in Belgium, which was found more than 100 years ago. The material includes all major limb elements as well as other cranial and postcranial bones, and allows the recognition of previously unknown features of phylogenetic significance. Based on these new osteological data, diomedeoidids were for the first time subjected to a phylogenetic analysis, which resulted in a position outside a clade including Hydrobatidae (northern storm‐petrels), Pelecanoididae (diving‐petrels), and Procellariidae (fulmars, petrels, shearwaters, and allies), either as the sister taxon of Diomedeidae (albatrosses) or as that of all crown group Procellariiformes. The latter placement is better supported by the osteological evidence, and diomedeoidids lack several apomorphies of crown group Procellariiformes. Previously unrecognized derived features are reported that support a monophyletic Hydrobatidae, thus contradicting recent proposals that Oceanitinae (southern storm‐petrels) are the earliest diverging crown group Procellariiformes. The new fossils also have a bearing on the convoluted taxonomy of diomedeoidids, and Diomedeoides Fischer, 1985 is synonymized with Rupelornis van Beneden, 1871. Diomedeoides lipsiensis (Fischer, 1983) is synonymous with Rupelornis definitus (van Beneden, 1871), a species that exhibits a large size range. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 166 , 854–875.     

Largest known specimen of the genus Dakosaurus (Metriorhynchidae: Geosaurini) from the Kimmeridge Clay Formation (Late Jurassic) of England,and an overview of Dakosaurus specimens discovered from this formation (including reworked specimens from the Woburn Sands Formation)

We report the largest known British specimen of the metriorhynchid crocodylomorph genus Dakosaurus discovered offshore from Chesil Beach, Dorset, England (Kimmeridge Clay Formation). This specimen is large toothed, which has extreme enamel spalling on the labial surface, enlarged carinae (‘carinal flanges’), carinal wear, macroziphodont denticles, and the crown retains much of its labiolingual width along most of its apicobasal length. This suite of morphologies is unique to Dakosaurus. All known Kimmeridge Clay Formation Dakosaurus specimens are isolated tooth crowns. A skull previously referred to Dakosaurus lacks all the cranial apomorphies of D. maximus and D. andiniensis, and cannot be referred to this genus. Furthermore, the vast majority of putative Dakosaurus tooth crowns from the ‘Potton Sands’ ( = Woburn Sands Formation) do indeed represent Dakosaurus (as well as two Plesiosuchus specimens), and they most likely originate from the Kimmeridge Clay Formation.     

A new psittaciform bird from the London Clay (Lower Eocene) of England

A new psittaciform bird from the Lower Eocene (Ypresian) London Clay of England is described. This taxon, Pulchrapollia gracilis gen. et sp. nov., is assigned to the order Psittaciformes (parrots) on the basis of several distinctive structures of the tarsometatarsus, namely the trochlea for metatarsal III (trochlea metatarsi III) bearing a tubercle on its lateral side and the trochlea for metatarsal IV (trochlea metatarsi IV) completely retroverted (fully zygodactyl foot). Comparisons with other fossil and Recent taxa further support this conclusion. Cladistic analysis shows that Pulchrapollia is the sister-taxon of the single extant family within Psittaciformes, the Psittacidae. Palaeopsittacus georgei, a taxon previously described from the London Clay, is most likely based on some unassociated material and is regarded here as incertae sedis.     

The morphology and systematics of Mammalodon colliveri (Cetacea: Mysticeti), a toothed mysticete from the Oligocene of Australia

Mammalodon colliveri is an unusual toothed archaic mysticete (Cetacea) from the Upper Oligocene Jan Juc Formation of south‐east Australia. The morphology of the holotype skull and postcrania are described in detail. Superimposed on the generally plesiomorphic archaeocete‐like morphology of Mammalodon are subtle mysticete synapomorphies. Derived features of Mammalodon include a short and bluntly rounded rostrum, reduced premaxillae, and anterodorsally directed orbits. Within Mysticeti, this suite of features is unique. The aberrant rostral morphology of Mammalodon suggests specialization for suction feeding. Janjucetus hunderi is placed in an expanded family Mammalodontidae. Phylogenetic analysis corroborates the monophyly of Basilosauridae, Neoceti, Odontoceti, and Mysticeti, and yields a novel hypothesis of toothed mysticete relationships: a basal clade of undescribed toothed mysticetes from South Carolina, a Llanocetidae + Mammalodontidae clade, and monophyletic Aetiocetidae are posited as successive sister taxa to edentulous baleen whales (Chaeomysticeti). Toothed archaic mysticetes clearly employed diverse prey capture strategies, with exaptations for filter feeding evolving sequentially in stem group Mysticeti. A stratigraphically calibrated phylogeny implies that the initial diversification of Mysticeti occurred during the Late Eocene. © 2009 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2010, 158 , 367–476.     

New Specimens of Yanornis Indicate a Piscivorous Diet and Modern Alimentary Canal

A crop adapted for an herbivorous diet of seeds has previously been documented in the Early Cretaceous birds Sapeornis and Hongshanornis. Here we report on several specimens of Yanornis that preserve a crop containing fish. One specimen preserves two whole fish in the oesophagus, indicating that Early Cretaceous birds shared trophic specializations with Neornithes for the increased energetic demands of flight – namely the storing of food for later consumption when the stomach is full. Whole fish also indicate that despite their presence, teeth were not used to orally process food, suggesting the hypertrophied dentition in this taxon were utilized in prey capture. The presence of macerated fish bones in the crop of other specimens indicates the highly efficient advanced muscular system of peristalsis responsible for moving ingested items between different segments of the alimentary canal was also in place. Despite the fact many features of the modern avian alimentary canal are inferred to compensate for the absence of teeth in birds (expandable oesophagus, grinding gizzard), the derived alimentary canal was apparently present in toothed Cretaceous birds. Although Yanornis was considered to have switched their diet from piscivorous to herbivorous, based on position and morphology we reinterpret the gastroliths reported in one specimen as sand impacted in the intestines, and reconstruct the taxon as primarily piscivorous. This is a novel interpretation for fossilized gastroliths, and the first documentation of this condition in the fossil record.     

A well‐preserved ‘charadriiform‐like’ fossil bird from the Early Eocene Fur Formation of Denmark

Abstract: We describe a new, exceptionally well‐preserved fossil bird recovered from marine deposits of the Early Eocene Fur Formation of Denmark. Morsoravis sedilis gen. et sp. nov. is known by a single specimen that consists of a three‐dimensional skull, vertebral column, ribs, pelvis, and left hindlimb and associated parts of the right hindlimb. Comparisons based on overall morphology and particularly characters of the skull, vertebrae and pelvis indicate that the new specimen is morphologically similar to charadriiform birds (the shorebirds and relatives). This similarity is also expressed by a phylogenetic analysis of higher neornithine (modern birds) taxa, which supports a close relationship between the new fossil and modern charadriiforms. The morphology of the hindlimbs, in particular, shows that the new fossil corresponds to a new taxon that is distinguishable from modern charadriiform clades. One interesting aspect of its morphology is the presence of hindlimb specializations that are most commonly found among perching birds – these suggest that ecologically the new Danish fossil bird may have differed from the wading habits typical of most charadriiforms.     

On the osteology and phylogenetic affinities of the Pseudasturidae – Lower Eocene stem-group representatives of parrots (Aves, Psittaciformes)

The osteology of the early Eocene (about 50 mya) avian taxon Pseudasturidae Mayr, 1998 is revised and its phylogenetic affinities are analysed. Members of the Pseudasturidae are known from abundant and excellently preserved skeletal material, both complete skeletons on slabs as well as isolated, three-dimensional bones. Although this taxon is thus among the best represented of all small early Tertiary birds, its systematic affinities were unknown so far. Derived osteological characters which are visible in newly recognized specimens from the Lower Eocene London Clay of England most convincingly support classification of the Pseudasturidae into the Psittaciformes (parrots). Both, in overall morphology and in terms of derived characters, the tarsometatarsus of the Pseudasturidae closely resembles that of the Eocene Quercypsittidae, which were assigned to the Psittaciformes by Mourer-Chauviré (1992 ). The Pseudasturidae are considered to be stem-group representatives of the Psittaciformes and the sister taxon of all other known psittaciform birds. The Eocene taxon lacks the specialized bill morphology of crown-group Psittaciformes of the Psittacidae. Several other osteological differences between the Pseudasturidae and the Psittacidae probably are also functionally correlated with the specialized feeding technique of the latter.  © 2002 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2002, 136 , 715–729.     

Feeding behaviour and bite force of sabretoothed predators

The feeding behaviour of extinct sabretoothed predators (machaeroidines, nimravids, barbourofelids, machairodonts and thylacosmilines) is investigated using beam theory. Because bite force applied along the mandible should be proportional to the external dimension of the mandibular corpus, patterns of variation in these dimensions at interdental gaps will reflect the adaptation of the jaw to specific loads, related to killing methods. Comparison of the mandibular force profiles of sabretooths to those of extant conical‐toothed carnivorans of known feeding behaviour reveals that sabretooths had a powerful bite, as strong or stronger than extant felids of similar mandibular length. Loads exerted at the lower canine were better constrained in the sagittal plane than in extant conical‐toothed carnivorans, indicating that prey was efficiently restrained when the sabre bite was delivered. The mandibular symphysis is generally better buttressed dorsoventrally in dirk‐toothed sabretooths than in scimitar‐toothed sabretooths, implying different killing strategies for the two ecomorphs: dirktooths delivered powerful sabre bites on prey they restrained with their forelimbs, while scimitartooths delivered slashing sabre bites and may have used their incisor battery to subdue their prey. The mandibular symphysis of Smilodon fatalis is less buttressed dorsoventrally than that of other dirk‐toothed sabretooths, possibly as a consequence of the greater torsional stresses induced while feeding rapidly on carcasses in response to intense competition. The mandibular symphysis of Thylacosmilus atrox is better buttressed dorsoventrally in juveniles than in adults, suggesting that young marsupial sabretooths underwent an extended period of parental care as typically observed in modern felids and inferred for eutherian sabretooths. Finally, machaeroidines and the nimravid Nimravus brachyops are exceptional in exhibiting a degree of dorsoventral buttressing of the mandibular symphysis that is intermediate between advanced sabretooths and conical‐toothed felids but similar to the extant Neofelis nebulosa, suggesting that the latter taxon may be close to the ancestral condition of a new sabretooth radiation. © 2005 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2005, 145 , 393–426.     

CRANIAL CREST DEVELOPMENT IN THE AZHDARCHOID PTEROSAUR TUPUXUARA, WITH A REVIEW OF THE GENUS AND TAPEJARID MONOPHYLY

Abstract: A portion of pterosaur skull from the Romualdo Member of the Santana Formation (?Albian–?Turonian, Cretaceous) of north‐east Brazil provides new data on the morphology and ontogeny of azhdarchoid pterosaur cranial crests. The specimen consists of parts of the cranial bones posterodorsal to the nasoantorbital fenestra, including partial nasals, lacrimals, frontals and possibly the parietals. A posterodorsally directed premaxillary crest with a concave posterior border is located dorsal to the posterior border of the nasoantorbital fenestra. A well‐defined suture indicates overlapping, posterodorsally directed growth of the premaxilla over the skull roof, suggesting that the generation of the premaxillary crest is a late ontogenetic feature and thus probably related to sexual display. The systematics of Tupuxuara and its relationship to other azhdarchoids is reviewed and a cladistic analysis of the group is presented. Tupuxuara is found to be the sister‐taxon to Azhdarchidae. Tupuxuara longicristatus Kellner and Campos, 1988 is argued to be the only valid named species in this genus and Thalassodromeus Kellner and Campos, 2002 is considered a junior subjective synonym of this taxon. As originally conceived, Tapejaridae is paraphyletic: a new, more restrictive version of Tapejaridae (including Tapejara and Sinopterus dongi) might exist, but its monophyly is weakly supported. Furthermore, Tapejara was found to be paraphyletic in all trees.     

Microstructure of skin derivatives as a reflection of phylogenesis of vertebrates

The possibility of using separate signs of microstructure of skin derivatives to understand phylogenesis processes at various hierarchical levels on the example of elasmoid scale of bony fish, feathers of Paleognathae birds, hepatoid glands, and mammal hair was demonstrated and discussed. It was shown that (1) the presence of toothed sclerite growths on the surface of the elasmoid scale of bony fish provided with a central canal can serve as a proof of the evolutional relation of placoid and elasmoid scales; (2) particularities of the microstructure of feathers of Paleognathae birds accord with the branching of their phylogenetic tree; (3) the development of hepatoid glands suggests a phylogenetic relatedness of ancestor forms of cavicorns, Canidae, and Felidae; (4) the subtle construction of horse hair shows the succession of the ancient E. lenensis and northern aborigine breeds of the domestic horse, the direction of the historical process of horse domestication and adaptation of these animals to environmental conditions; (5) similarities in the microstructure of hair of the giant and red panda and bears indicate their evolutional links with Ursidae rather than raccoons.     

Cranial anatomy,taxonomic implications and palaeopathology of an Upper Jurassic Pliosaur (Reptilia: Sauropterygia) from Westbury,Wiltshire, UK

Abstract: Complete skulls of giant marine reptiles of the Late Jurassic are rare, and so the discovery of the 1.8‐m‐long skull of a pliosaur from the Kimmeridge Clay Formation (Kimmeridgian) of Westbury, Wiltshire, UK, is an important find. The specimen shows most of the cranial and mandibular anatomy, as well as a series of pathological conditions. It was previously referred to Pliosaurus brachyspondylus, but it can be referred reliably only to the genus Pliosaurus, because species within the genus are currently in need of review. The new specimen, together with another from the same locality, also referred to P. brachyspondylus, will be crucial in that systematic revision, and it is likely that the genus Pliosaurus will be found to include several genera. The two Westbury Pliosaurus specimens share many features, including the form of the teeth, but marked differences in the snout and parietal crest suggest sexual dimorphism; the present specimen is probably female. The large size of the animal, the extent of sutural fusion and the pathologies suggest this is an ageing individual. An erosive arthrotic condition of the articular glenoids led to prolonged jaw misalignment, generating a suite of associated bone and dental pathologies. Further damage to the jaw joint may have been the cause of death.     

The cranial anatomy and taxonomy of Peloneustes philarchus (Sauropterygia,Pliosauridae) from the Peterborough Member (Callovian,Middle Jurassic) of the United Kingdom

Abstract: Peloneustes philarchus is the most abundant pliosaurid from the Peterborough Member of the Oxford Clay Formation (Callovian) of the UK. It is a valid taxon possessing a unique character combination, including a single autapomorphy: the interdentary symphysis is raised dorsally on a narrow platform. Twenty‐one specimens can be positively referred to P. philarchus. However, other specimens previously referred to Peloneustes, from the Peterborough Member near Peterborough, and the lower Oxfordian strata of Marquise, northern France, represent distinct, unnamed taxa. The skull of P. philarchus is described in detail, including new information from an uncrushed, three‐dimensionally preserved specimen and a specimen with a well‐preserved palate. Well‐preserved material clearly indicates that P. philarchus lacked nasals, but possessed a lacrimal. A previously unrecognised ‘palpebral’ forms part of the dorsal orbit margin adjacent to the prefrontal. The number of maxillary (30–31) and dentary (36–44) alveoli, the number of dentary alveoli adjacent to the mandibular symphysis (13–15), the number of foramina on the frontal and jugal, the breadth of the parasphenoid, breadth of the anterior (narial) process of the palatine and the presence of a lappet of the angular that extends onto the posterodorsal surface of the retroarticular process vary among individuals but are not considered sufficient to justify the recognition of new taxa. The presence of an open palpebral–prefrontal suture, the size of the ventral midline tubercle of the basioccipital and the presence of an anterior interpterygoid vacuity seem to vary with body size.     

Characterization of Pasteurellaceae‐like bacteria isolated from clinically affected psittacine birds

Aims: The aim of the present investigation was to identify and characterize Pasteurella‐like isolates obtained from clinically affected psittacine birds. Methods and Results: A total of 37 isolates from psittacine birds tentatively classified with the family Pasteurellaceae were characterized phenotypically. The genetic relationship was investigated by sequencing of partial rpoB and 16S rRNA genes for selected isolates. The results obtained were compared with the data from 16 reference strains. Nine isolates were identified as Gallibacterium spp., 16 as Volucribacter spp. or Volucribacter‐like, while 11 isolates were classified as taxon 44 of Bisgaard. A single isolate was identified as Pasteurella multocida. Conclusions: Characterization of Pasteurellaceae by traditional methods is often inconclusive because of inconsistent reactions and phenotypic diversity. For the same reason, genotyping is essential to allow proper classification as demonstrated in the present study. Significance and Impact of the Study: Limited information exists on the isolation and significance of Pasteurellaceae associated with clinically affected psittacine birds showing signs of digestive and/or respiratory disorders. The present investigations demonstrated that these organisms are widely distributed among clinically affected birds, but isolation of these taxa cannot be unambiguously correlated with the symptoms observed.     

Multi‐locus sequence typing of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium isolates from wild birds in northern England suggests host‐adapted strain

Aims: Recent studies have suggested that Salmonella Typhimurium strains associated with mortality in UK garden birds are significantly different from strains that cause disease in humans and livestock and that wild bird strains may be host adapted. However, without further genomic characterization of these strains, it is not possible to determine whether they are host adapted. The aim of this study was to characterize a representative sample of Salm. Typhimurium strains detected in wild garden birds using multi‐locus sequence typing (MLST) to investigate evolutionary relationships between them. Methods and Results: Multi‐locus sequence typing was performed on nine Salm. Typhimurium strains isolated from wild garden birds. Two sequence types were identified, the most common of which was ST568. Examination of the public Salmonella enterica MLST database revealed that only three other ST568 isolates had been cultured from a human in Scotland. Two further isolates of Salm. Typhimurium were determined to be ST19. Conclusions: Results of MLST analysis suggest that there is a predominant strain of Salm. Typhimurium circulating among garden bird populations in the United Kingdom, which is rarely detected in other species, supporting the hypothesis that this strain is host adapted. Significance and Impact of the Study: Host–pathogen evolution is often assumed to lead to pathogens becoming less virulent to avoid the death of their host; however, infection with ST568 led to high mortality rates among the wild birds examined, which were all found dead at wild bird‐feeding stations. We hypothesize that by attracting unnaturally high densities of birds, wild bird‐feeding stations may facilitate the transmission of ST568 between wild birds, therefore reducing the evolutionary cost of this pathogen killing its host, resulting in a host‐adapted strain with increased virulence.