THE PSYCHOLOGY OF PLAY

Psychoneurological study of national minorities is a problem of the epoch for all the psychoneurological sciences. Under Soviet conditions, under conditions for the growth of socialism, a qualitatively totally new setting is being created for the all-round creative and extraordinarily rapid development of national minorities. The facts of history are being literally eradicated; the old estate-based "aristocratic" contempt for the so-called "inferior races" is being eliminated. We see how these "inferior races" are becoming quickly differentiated in terms of class, and how they are being transformed into "superior races" under conditions of the developing socialism, particularly among their proletarian, impoverished sectors, which previously were considered the "lowest of the low."     

Evolutionary fallacies of Nazi psychiatry. Implications for current research

Evolutionary theory has had a major impact on psychiatry since the middle of the 19th century. During the Nazi regime psychiatry supported compulsory sterilization and euthanasia of physically and mentally ill and subsequently the killing of "inferior" races by borrowing scientifically invalid conclusions from evolutionary biology. The present paper deals with some of the flaws and shortcomings of the scientific paradigms of evolutionary theory adopted by psychiatry during the Nazi regime and discusses possible implications for modern research in evolutionary psychology and psychiatry.     

Dermatoglyphics and the origin of races

Digital pattern type frequencies and frequencies of patterns in the Hypothenar, Thenar/Ist interdigital, IInd and IIIrd interdigital areas have been used for computing multivariate distances among four human geographical races. Results: Europids and Negrids stand near one another, Mongolids are remote from both and Australids are more remote from the three other races. This pattern of phenetic relationships corresponds to the evolutionary tree of Homo sapiens as reconstructed by the author on the basis of palaeoanthropological data.     

Molecular Evidence and the Evolution of Maize

In this review, the contributions of isozyme and chloroplast DNA studies to questions surrounding the evolution of maize are summarized. These methods of analysis provide generally strong support for the hierarchical system of classification of Zea proposed by Iltis and Doebley (1980). Molecular evidence is fully congruent with the theory that teosinte is ancestral to maize and suggests thatZ. mays subsp.parviglumis was the ancestral teosinte taxon. Further, these data show that only those populations from the central region of the range of subsp. parviglumis resemble maize in both isozymic and chloroplast DNA constitution. Presuming no major changes in the distribution of subsp. parviglumis since the domestication of maize, these data would place the origin of maize in the Balsas River drainage southwest of Mexico City. Molecular systematic evidence provides no support for theories that maize was domesticated independently several times; however, this type of data can not disprove such theories. Analyses of isozyme and chloroplast DNA diversity in Zea provide evidence of limited gene flow between maize and teosinte, but are not consistent with models that postulate extensive genetic interchange between these taxa. Isozyme studies have added substantially to the understanding of evolutionary relationships among extant races of maize and suggest that there are a small number of major racial complexes in Meso- and North America which have often evolved in response to environmental constraints associated with altitude. Ultimately, molecular genetic studies may allow a resolution of the controversy surrounding the morphological evolution of the maize ear.     

Human Races: A Genetic and Evolutionary Perspective

Race is generally used as a synonym for subspecies , which traditionally is a geographically circumscribed, genetically differentiated population. Sometimes traits show independent patterns of geographical variation such that some combination will distinguish most populations from all others. To avoid making "race" the equivalent of a local population, minimal thresholds of differentiation are imposed. Human "races" are below the thresholds used in other species, so valid traditional subspecies do not exist in humans. A "subspecies" can also be defined as a distinct evolutionary lineage within a species. Genetic surveys and the analyses of DNA haplotype trees show that human "races" are not distinct lineages, and that this is not due to recent admixture; human "races" are not and never were "pure." Instead, human evolution has been and is characterized by many locally differentiated populations coexisting at any given time, but with sufficient genetic contact to make all of humanity a single lineage sharing a common evolutionary fate.     

Bergmann’s Rule,Adaptation, and Thermoregulation in Arctic Animals: Conflicting Perspectives from Physiology,Evolutionary Biology,and Physical Anthropology After World War II

Bergmann’s rule and Allen’s rule played important roles in mid-twentieth century discussions of adaptation, variation, and geographical distribution. Although inherited from the nineteenth-century natural history tradition these rules gained significance during the consolidation of the modern synthesis as evolutionary theorists focused attention on populations as units of evolution. For systematists, the rules provided a compelling rationale for identifying geographical races or subspecies, a function that was also picked up by some physical anthropologists. More generally, the rules provided strong evidence for adaptation by natural selection. Supporters of the rules tacitly, or often explicitly, assumed that the clines described by the rules reflected adaptations for thermoregulation. This assumption was challenged by the physiologists Laurence Irving and Per Scholander based on their arctic research conducted after World War II. Their critique spurred a controversy played out in a series of articles in Evolution, in Ernst Mayr’s Animal Species and Evolution, and in the writings of other prominent evolutionary biologists and physical anthropologists. Considering this episode highlights the complexity and ambiguity of important biological concepts such as adaptation, homeostasis, and self-regulation. It also demonstrates how different disciplinary orientations and styles of scientific research influenced evolutionary explanations, and the consequent difficulties of constructing a truly synthetic evolutionary biology in the decades immediately following World War II.     

Race and the Concept of Progress in Nineteenth Century American Ethnology

While nineteenth century American ethnologists relied on the word "evolution" more than the word "progress" to define their theory of culture, their theory of evolution nonetheless implied a teleological projection that was no more than a paeon for Anglo-Saxon race achievement. Believing that failures in earlier stages of evolution had limited brain size and quality of the "inferior races," they suggested that, for all practical purposes, the Caucasian was the lone man in evolution. While the Caucasian maintained an active, progressive role in modifying the environment, the lower races broke into the modern world as mere "survivals" from the past, mentally and physiologically unable to shoulder the burdens of complex civilization. Ethnology became a means through which both scientists and social scientists sought to estimate the relative value of the races, delineate social categories, and help justify the dynamics of race legislation.     

Races of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris,Fabaceae)

Evidence for genetic diversity in cultivated common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) is reviewed. Multivariate statistical analyses of morphological, agronomic, and molecular data, as well as other available information on Latin American landraces representing various geographical and ecological regions of their primary centers of domestications in the Americas, reveal the existence of two major groups of germplasm: Middle American and Andean South American, which could be further divided into six races. Three races originated in Middle America (races Durango, Jalisco, and Mesoamerica) and three in Andean South America (races Chile, Nueva Granada, and Peru). Their distinctive characteristics and their relationships with previously reported gene pools are discussed.     

PARALLEL RACE FORMATION AND THE EVOLUTION OF MIMICRY IN HELICONIUS BUTTERFLIES: A PHYLOGENETIC HYPOTHESIS FROM MITOCHONDRIAL DNA SEQUENCES

Mimicry has been a fundamental focus of research since the birth of evolutionary biology yet rarely has been studied from a phylogenetic perspective beyond the simple recognition that mimics are not similar due to common descent. The difficulty of finding characters to discern relationships among closely related and convergent taxa has challenged systematists for more than a century. The phenotypic diversity of wing pattens among mimetic Heliconius adds an additional twist to the problem, because single species contain more than a dozen radically different-looking geographical races even though the mimetic advantage is theoretically highest when all individuals within and between species appear the same. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) offers an independent way to address these issues. In this study, Cytochrome Oxidase I and II sequences from multiple, parallel races of Heliconius erato and Heliconius melpomene are examined, to estimate intraspecific phylogeny and gauge sequence divergence and ages of clades among races within each species. Although phenotypes of sympatric races exhibit remarkable concordance between the two species, the mitochondrial cladograms show that the species have not shared a common evolutionary history. H. erato exhibits a basal split between trans- and cis-Andean groups of races, whereas H. melpomene originates in the Guiana Shield. Diverse races in either species appear to have evolved within the last 200,000 yr, and convergent phenotypes have evolved independently within as well as between species. These results contradict prior theories of the evolution of mimicry based on analysis of wing-pattern genetics.     

Domestication patterns in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and the origin of the Mesoamerican and Andean cultivated races

Chloroplast DNA polymorphisms were studied by PCR sequencing and PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism in 165 accessions of domesticated landraces of common bean from Latin America and the USA, 23 accessions of weedy beans, and 134 accessions of wild beans covering the entire geographic range of wild Phaseolus vulgaris. Fourteen chloroplast haplotypes were identified in wild beans, only five of which occur also in domesticated beans. The chloroplast data agree with those obtained from analyses based on morphology and isozymes and with other DNA polymorphisms in supporting independent domestications of common bean in Mesoamerica and the Andean region and in demonstrating a founder effect associated with domestication in each region. Andean landraces have been classified into three different racial groups, but all share the same chloroplast haplotype. This suggests that common bean was domesticated once only in South America and that the races diverged post-domestication. The haplotype found in Andean domesticated beans is confined to the southern part of the range of wild beans, so Andean beans were probably domesticated somewhere within this area. Mesoamerican landraces have been classified into four racial groups. Our limited samples of Races Jalisco and Guatemala differ from the more widespread and commercially important Races Mesoamerica and Durango in types and/or frequencies of haplotypes. All four Mesoamerican races share their haplotypes with local wild beans in parts of their ranges. Independent domestications of at least some of the races in Mesoamerica and/or conversion of some locally adapted wild beans to cultigens by hybridization with introduced domesticated beans, followed by introgression of the domestication syndrome seem the most plausible explanations of the chloroplast and other molecular data.     

Genetics and the Origin of Human “Races”

In the last decades, the concept of human races was considered scientifically unfounded as it was not confirmed by genetic evidence. None of the racial classifications, which strongly differ in the number of races and their composition, reflects actual genetic similarity and genealogy of human populations inferred from variability of classical markers and DNA regions. Moreover, intercontinental (interracial) variability was shown to be far lower than that within populations: the former constitutes 7 to 10% of the total genetic variation and the latter about 85% of it. It is believed that the low level of differentiation of regional population groups contradicts their race status and suggests a recent origin of humans from one ancestral population. The results of studies of various genetic systems are in agreement with the latter conclusion rejecting the hypothesis of regional continuity. According to this hypothesis, the populations of continents regarded as large races have developed during long evolution from local types of archaic humans, in particular, Neanderthals. Phenotypic similarity of different, sometimes unrelated, populations united into one race is explained by strong selection since race-diagnostic traits characterize body surface and thus are directly subjected to the influence of environmental (primarily climatic) factors. It has been recently established that variability of the most important of these traits, body and hair pigmentation, is largely controlled by one locus (MC1R), which accounts for its high evolutionary lability. Other traits used for race identification are also likely to be labile and controlled by major genes. However, the fact that the currently existing race classifications are groundless does not mean that such classifications are impossible in principle. Commonly used argumentation (races do not exist because populations are not genetically separated) does not hold water. A polytypic species is characterized by genetic continuity of allopatric populations rather than the presence of narrow genetic boundaries between them. Borderlines between races are usually conventional and arbitrary. As to intergroup variation in humans, it is indeed low but comparable with that in a number of other species. There are no obstacles to the development of genetic systematics of human races.     

The systematics of autopolyploidy in Epilobium latifolium (Onagraceae)

Diploid (2n = 36) plants ofEpilobium latifolium L. have been found in Alaska and the western Cordillera of North America, and tetraploids in Iceland, western Greenland, and southeastern Quebec. Study of the morphology of these chromosome races revealed a character, the number of pores in the pollen grains, by which they could be distinguished with an average probability of 75%. Tetraploids ofE. latifolium tend to have high percentages of 4-pored pollen, while the diploids usually have only 3-pored pollen. On this basis, the ranges of the races were extrapolated from herbarium material. Detailed comparisons of eight other features of the presumptive diploids and tetraploids showed no significant difference between them. The races appear to form worldwide, allopatric, ecogeographic phases. A high level (57.4%) of quadrivalent formation observed during tetraploid meiosis, and other considerations, indicate that the tetraploids arose by autopolyploidy. The recommendation is made that the races not be given formal taxonomic recognition.     

Modelling the evolution of common cuckoo host‐races: speciation or genetic swamping?

Co‐evolutionary arms races have provided clear evidence for evolutionary change, especially in host–parasite systems. The evolution of host‐specific races in the common cuckoo (Cuculus canorus), however, is also an example where sexual conflict influences the outcome. Cuckoo females benefit from better adaptation to overcome host defences, whereas cuckoo males face a trade‐off between the benefits of better adaptation to a host and the benefits of multiple mating with females from other host‐races. The outcome of this trade‐off might be genetic differentiation or prevention of it by genetic swamping. We use a simulation model to test which outcome is more likely with three sympatric cuckoo host‐races. We assume a cost for cuckoo chicks that express a host adaptation allele not suited to their foster host species and that cuckoo males that switch to another host‐race experience either a fitness benefit or cost. Over most of the parameter space, cuckoo male host‐race fidelity increases significantly with time, and gene flow between host‐races ceases within a few thousand to a hundred thousand generations. Our results hence support the idea that common cuckoo host‐races might be in the incipient stages of speciation.     

Molecular Evidence and the Evolution of Maize

In this review, the contributions of isozyme and chloroplast DNA studies to questions surrounding the evolution of maize are summarized. These methods of analysis provide generally strong support for the hierarchical system of classification of Zea proposed by Iltis and Doebley (1980). Molecular evidence is fully congruent with the theory that teosinte is ancestral to maize and suggests thatZ. mays subsp.parviglumis was the ancestral teosinte taxon. Further, these data show that only those populations from the central region of the range of subsp. parviglumis resemble maize in both isozymic and chloroplast DNA constitution. Presuming no major changes in the distribution of subsp. parviglumis since the domestication of maize, these data would place the origin of maize in the Balsas River drainage southwest of Mexico City. Molecular systematic evidence provides no support for theories that maize was domesticated independently several times; however, this type of data can not disprove such theories. Analyses of isozyme and chloroplast DNA diversity in Zea provide evidence of limited gene flow between maize and teosinte, but are not consistent with models that postulate extensive genetic interchange between these taxa. Isozyme studies have added substantially to the understanding of evolutionary relationships among extant races of maize and suggest that there are a small number of major racial complexes in Meso- and North America which have often evolved in response to environmental constraints associated with altitude. Ultimately, molecular genetic studies may allow a resolution of the controversy surrounding the morphological evolution of the maize ear.     

The American Isolates: The Little Races

In order to bring the study of bi- and tri-mixed racial groups in America and elsewhere into the general body of racial theory, it is suggested that such groups be considered "little races" From this point of view, considerations having to do with "racialization" and "de-racialization" may find a place in a larger frame of reference along with tribalization, detribalization, and processes leading to group differentiation generally. The little races are marginal groups, but not necessarily aggregations of marginal men. They are made aware of themselves as marginal groups as they become objects of scurrilous epithets thrown at them by larger neighboring racial groups. This leads to a search for a name of dignity, a name inherited from "pure" and honorable ancestors. A number of such origin myths are mentioned. Modern ecological, economic, political, and social changes threaten the future of the little races.     

Hierarchical clustering of 54 races and strains of the mulberry silkworm,Bombyx mori L: Significance of biochemical parameters

Summary A detailed analysis was undertaken to test the efficacy of hierarchical agglomerative clustering (UPGMA method) in grouping the races and strains of the mulberry silkworm, Bombyx moti L., and to ascertain the importance of biochemical parameters in the clustering process. The analysis was based on data from two rearing seasons with 54 selected races/strains of different geographic origin and varying yield potentials. The results indicate that seven clusters can be realised with yield parameters alone, whereas the inclusion of biochemical parameters in clustering resulted into two broad groups: one having all the breeds with high cocoon weight and shell weight, the other having all the low-yielding silkworm strains both from India and from other countries. Further sub-grouping under these two groups highlights genetical differences associated with the differentiation of various groups of races in temperate and tropical areas as well as their significance for silkworm breeding. Estimates of all ten variables were further subjected to quick clustering and the results showed that cluster 5, constituted by 38 lowyielding strains of India, China and Europe, had the highest values of the final cluster centre for amylase and the effective rate of rearing (ERR), while clusters 1 and 4 had the highest values for invertase and alkaline phosphatase. The evolutionary aspect of the genetic channelisation of silkworm races from various countries is discussed against the background of differences in the biochemical parameters and yield variables.     

Host Suitability of Diverse Lines of Phaseolus vulgaris to Multiple Populations of Heterodera glycines

The host suitability of diverse races and gene pools of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) for multiple isolates of Heterodera glycines was studied. Twenty P. vulgaris genotypes, representing three of the six races within the two major germplasm pools, were tested in greenhouse experiments to determine their host suitability to five H. glycines isolates. Phaseolus vulgaris genotypes differed in their host suitability to different H. glycines isolates. While some common bean lines were excellent hosts for some H. glycines isolates, no common bean line was a good host for all isolates. Some bean lines from races Durango and Mesoamerica, representing the Middle America gene pool, were resistant to all five nematode isolates. Other lines, from both the Andean and Middle America gene pools, had differential responses for host suitability to the different isolates of H. glycines.     

Population structure and genetic diversity of New World maize races assessed by DNA microsatellites

Because of the economic importance of maize and its scientific importance as a model system for studies of domestication, its evolutionary history is of general interest. We analyzed the population genetic structure of maize races by genotyping 964 individual plants, representing almost the entire set of ～350 races native to the Americas, with 96 microsatellites. Using Bayesian clustering, we detected four main clusters consisting of highland Mexican, northern United States (US), tropical lowland, and Andean races. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that the southwestern US was an intermediary stepping stone between Mexico and the northern US. Furthermore, southeastern US races appear to be of mixed northern flint and tropical lowland ancestry, while lowland middle South American races are of mixed Andean and tropical lowland ancestry. Several cases of post-Columbian movement of races were detected, most notably from the US to South America. Of the four main clusters, the highest genetic diversity occurs in highland Mexican races, while diversity is lowest in the Andes and northern US. Isolation by distance appears to be the main factor underlying the historical diversification of maize. We identify highland Mexico and the Andes as potential sources of genetic diversity underrepresented among elite lines used in maize breeding programs.     

Genetics and the origin of human races

In the last decades, the concept of human races was considered scientifically unfounded as it was not confirmed by genetic evidence. None of the racial classifications, which strongly differ in the number of races and their composition, reflects actual genetic similarity and genealogy of human populations inferred from variability of classical markers and DNA regions. Moreover, intercontinental ("interracial") variability was shown to be far lower than that within populations: the former constitutes 7 to 10% and the latter, about 85% of the total genetic variation. It is believed that the low level of differentiation of regional population groups contradicts their race status and suggests a recent origin of humans from one ancestral population. The results of studies of various genetic systems are in agreement with last conclusion rejecting the hypothesis of regional continuity. According to this hypothesis, the populations of continents regarded as large races have developed during long evolution from local types of archaic humans, in particular, Neanderthals. Phenotypic similarity of different, sometimes unrelated, populations united into one "race" is explained by strong selection since race-diagnostic traits characterize body surface and thus are directly subjected to the influence of environmental (primarily climatic) factors. It has been recently established that variability of the most important of these traits, body and hair pigmentation, is largely controlled by one locus (MC1R), which accounts for its high evolutionary lability. Other traits used for race identification are also likely to be labile and controlled by major genes. However, the fact that the currently existing race classifications are groundless does not mean that such classifications are impossible in principle. Commonly used argumentation (races do not exist because populations are not genetically separated) does not hold water. A polytypic species is characterized by genetic continuity of allopatric populations rather than the presence of narrow genetic boundaries between them. Borderlines between races are usually conventional and arbitrary. As to intergroup variation in humans, it is indeed low but comparable with that in some other species. There are no obstacles to the development of genetic systematics of human races.