Thigmonasticity of thistle staminal filaments

Investigations of the longitudinal distribution of the extensibility of staminal filaments of the common thistle (Cirsium horridulum Michx.) showed that the base of the filaments (attachment to corolla) is almost twice as elastic as the apical portion (next to anthers). Boiling leads to a more uniform distribution of extensibility. Using a stress-strain analyzer we investigated the elastic properties of fresh, water-boiled, partially hydrolyzed (acid-boiled), and dehydrated filaments. Stress-strain curves of sinusoidally stretched sets of filaments revealed complex, non-linear behavior with an average modulus of elasticity of 5 MPa·m^–2. The phase angle varied from approximately 18 degrees for 0.01-Hz deformations to 84 degrees at 2 Hz, indicating strong viscoelastic components. The viscoelasticity of the filaments indicates that the cell walls have a high ratio of pectin to cellulose. Boiling does not affect Young's modulus, but dehydration does. The technique of applying sinusoidal loads and the analysis of the stress-strain curves proves useful for the assessment of mechanical properties of cell walls, especially for non-growing or contractile tissues.We thank Dr. Paul Russo, Louisiana State University, for allowing us to use the stress-strain analyzer. This work was supported by National Science Foundation grant IBN-9118094.     

Translocation in the staminal hairs ofSetcreasea purpurea

Summary Investigations into plant intercellular communication were initiated through an examination of plasmodesmata and cell-to-cell passage of molecular probes in the staminal hairs ofSetcreasea purpurea. Plasmodesmata connecting staminal hair cells of small buds are filled with an electron-opaque homogenous material. To examine the permeation selectivity of plasmodesmata, molecular probes made up of fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) complexed with amino acids and peptides were injected into the staminal hair cells and the spread of these fluorescent molecules through the symplast, was monitored. Molecules composed of FITC complexed to single amino acids with polar and aliphatic R groups travel rapidly, while those which include peptides travel slowly. Dye molecules composed of an amino acid with an aromatic side group do not pass from cell to cell at all. It is hypothesized that the material occluding the plasmodesmata constitutes the diffusion barrier, by presenting a hydrophilic environment which allows passage of molecules with maximum molecular weights of 700–800 daltons, but which retains those with aromatic side groups.     

Translocation in the staminal hairs ofSetcreasea purpurea

Summary Previously reported studies of cell ultrastructure and molecular probe passage in immature staminal hairs were extended to kinetic studies. The rate of transport of carboxyfluorescein into the cytoplasm in individual cells was monitored with a video analyzer and transport coefficients were determined. Carboxyfluorescein was found to traverse 5 cells in less than 5 minutes. The values of transport coefficients differed between cells and this was taken to mean that some cells are more closely coupled than others.     

Azide treatment enhances cell-to-cell diffusion in staminal hairs ofSetcreasea purpurea

Summary The effect of azide on the diffusion of fluorescent molecular probes was examined in staminal hairs ofSetcreasea purpurea. Staminal hairs were treated with azide before being microinjected with fluorescent molecular probes of different size, charge, and structure. The cell-to-cell movement of these fluorescent molecules was videotaped, analyzed, and coefficients of diffusion through plasmodesmata (D) and coefficients of diffusion across the tonoplast (k₁) were calculated and compared to those of untreated cells. The D was larger and the k₁ was smaller for many fluorescent probes in azide treated cells compared to normal, untreated cells. In addition, the cell-to-cell diffusion selectivity based on molecule structure, size and charge no longer existed in azide treated cells. An average D of 3.3×10^–8cm²/s and an average k₁ of 2.9×10^–7/m²/s was calculated for the molecular probes tested. New size limits for permeation were observed indicating that the plasmodesmata had become enlarged.Abbreviations CF carboxyfluorescein - D diffusion coefficient for molecular probes in intercellular pores - FITC-Ang fluorescein isothiocyanate-angiotensin II - k₁ coefficient of diffusive loss across the tonoplast     

A new species of Castanopsis (Fagaceae) from the upper Pliocene of West Yunnan,China and its biogeographical implications

Two fossil leaves identified as Castanopsis presclerophylla n. sp. collected from a diatomite bed in the upper Pliocene (3.3–2.8 Ma) in Tengchong County, Yunnan Province, Southwest China, are characterized by elliptic laminar shapes with acuminate apex, convex base, simple trichome bases and cyclocytic stomata. The cuticles of extant leaves from six selected Castanopsis species that are similar to the Pliocene fossil leaves in laminar shape were examined in detail for the comparison. Based on the analysis of leaf architecture and cuticular characteristics, the present fossil leaves most closely resemble the extant leaves of Castanopsis sclerophylla (Lindl.) Schott., which prefers a subtropical climate. The published fossil records of Castanopsis also indicate that it was once widely distributed in North America, Europe and Asia before the Pliocene, and then rapidly retreated to the East and Southeast Asia as a result of the Pleistocene glaciation.     

Organization of the cuticle of an aquatic fly larva

The aquatic, apneustic larva of the midge, Chironomus riparius, has a very thin (up to 5 micrometers), readily deformable, post-cephalic cuticle. The ultrastructure of this cuticle from newly moulted and older final instar animals, and exuvia shed at pupation, has been examined using routine methods and also after the extraction of proteins with formamide and acetic acid. From the results described, and using established criteria, it is inferred that an exocuticle is present and represents about 25% of the thickness of the mature procuticle, the remainder being endocuticle. Therefore, it would seem that this exceptionally delicate cuticle conforms to the conventional plan of tanned or sclerotized solid cuticles, unlike those reported in the larvae of cyclorrhaphous dipterans such as blowflies or other soft-bodied insects. This is the first account, using experimental techniques, of the fine structure of sectioned cuticle from nematocerous dipteran larvae. It also indicates the value of the exuvium as a source of information about cuticle structure.     

The timing of nectar secretion in staminal and staminodial glands in Lauraceae

The flowers of many Lauraceae have two kinds of glandular organ: paired glands at the base of the filaments of the third androecial whorl, and staminodes with a glandular head, corresponding to a fourth, sterile androecial whorl. So far, it is unknown why there are two different kinds of organ with apparently the same function. Observations now show that the staminal and the staminodial glands secrete nectar at different times in the heterodichogamous flowering cycle, and are therefore essential for the pollination of bisexual Lauraceae flowers.     

Warming increases the spread of an invasive thistle

Background

Global warming and shifted precipitation regimes increasingly affect species abundances and distributions worldwide. Despite a large literature on species'' physiological, phenological, growth, and reproductive responses to such climate change, dispersal is rarely examined. Our study aims to test whether the dispersal ability of a non-native, wind-dispersed plant species is affected by climate change, and to quantify the ramifications for future invasion spread rates.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We experimentally increased temperature and precipitation in a two-cohort, factorial field study (n = 80). We found an overwhelming warming effect on plant life history: warming not only improved emergence, survival, and reproduction of the thistle Carduus nutans, but also elevated plant height, which increased seed dispersal distances. Using spatial population models, we demonstrate that these empirical warming effects on demographic vital rates, and dispersal parameters, greatly exacerbate spatial spread. Predicted levels of elevated winter precipitation decreased seed production per capitulum, but this only slightly offset the warming effect on spread. Using a spread rate decomposition technique (c*-LTRE), we also found that plant height-mediated changes in dispersal contribute most to increased spread rate under climate change.

Conclusions/Significance

We found that both dispersal and spread of this wind-dispersed plant species were strongly impacted by climate change. Dispersal responses to climate change can improve, or diminish, a species'' ability to track climate change spatially, and should not be overlooked. Methods that combine both demographic and dispersal responses thus will be an invaluable complement to projections of suitable habitat under climate change.     

Cuticular ultrastructure of Chordodes nobilii Camerano, 1901, with a comparison of cuticular ultrastructure in horsehair worms (Nematomorpha)

The cuticle of Chordodes nobilii Camerano, 1901 is composed of a proximal layer with about 30 sheets of large fibers in alternating orientations and a distal layer, which mainly forms the surface structures, the areoles. The three different types of areoles, simple, tubercle and crowned areoles, are formed mainly by material of strong and medium electron density. The tubercle areoles have a basal constriction and paired spherical structures of unknown function below the base. Irregularly distributed are paired, cushion-like structures, from which projections traverse the cuticle and run into the epidermis. In the crowned areoles, these cushions also send projections into the apical filaments. A comparison with the few ultrastructurally described cuticles from other species reveals some similarities between the cuticles of C. nobilii and Paragordius varius, making it probable that the cushion-like structures are homologous. However, Pseudochordodes bedriagae, which is more closely related to Chordodes than Paragordius, lacks the cushions. Problematic is the interpretation of different cuticular structures in Gordius. If correctly determined, areoles are present in some Gordius species and resemble in their structure areoles from other species. If areoles have to be regarded as homologous, the absence of a distal layer and areoles would have to be interpreted as a secondary reduction in species such as Gordius aquaticus.     

Structure and mechanical strength of larval cuticle of sawflies capable of "easy bleeding" a defence strategy against predators evolved in Tenthredinidae (Hymenoptera)

The cuticle of Tenthredinidae (Hymenoptera) larvae is ruptured after a very mild mechanical stress and hemolymph is released. This phenomenon, called "easy bleeding" is considered as a defence strategy against predators. We investigated the cuticle structure of some selected species capable of "easy bleeding" by light-, transmission- and scanning microscopy and compared it with phylogenetically-related sawfly species without this defense strategy (control). Cuticle thickness has no major influence on mechanical stability, but pronounced local differences in thickness seem to be inversely correlated with mechanical strength. The density of chitin fibrils is considerably reduced in animals capable of easy bleeding and the fibres form a loose 3D network in contrast to the densely packed layers seen in related "non easy bleeding" species like Strongylogaster multifasciata, where a pressure of 2584 kPa is needed to pierce the integument, and which served as a control. Efficient bleeders like Phymatocera aterrima (203 kPa) and Rhadinoceraea nodicornis (219 kPa) are devoid of any defined layers or other structural elements. In Athalia rosae (Allantinae) (539 kPa), and Aglaostigma discolor (Tenthredininae) (1494 kPa)--bleeders with medium efficiency--a reduced number of layers are observed by LM and TEM and a loose network of chitin fibres is visible after treatment with KOH.     

Taxonomic characters of the staminal tube and epicalyx in Brazilian Pavonia (Malvaceae)

This study was based on the analysis of staminal tube and epicalyx morphology of species ofPavonia (Malvaceae) from northeastern and southeastern Brazil. The importance of characters in the infrageneric taxonomy is discussed. In general, the variability in staminal tube and epicalyx characters are useful mainly in separating closely related species and a few sections; these characters, however, cannot be used to separate subgenera.     

Molting and cuticle deposition in the subterranean trichoniscid Titanethes albus (Crustacea, Isopoda)

Terrestrial isopods are a suitable group for the study of cuticle synthesis and calcium dynamics because they molt frequently and have evolved means to store calcium during molt. Little data is currently available on molting in Synocheta and subterranean isopods. We studied the molting dynamics in the subterranean trichoniscid Titanethes albus under laboratory conditions and performed a microscopic investigation of sternal CaCO(3) deposits and the tergal epithelium during molt in this species. In accordance with its lower metabolic rate, molting in the laboratory is roughly 2-3 times less frequent in Titanethes albus than would be expected for an epigean isopod under similar conditions. Animals assumed characteristic postures following the molt of each body half and did not consume the posterior exuviae after posterior molt. The structure of sternal calcium deposits and the ultrastructural characteristics of the epidermis during cuticle formation in Titanethes albus are similar to those described in representatives of Ligiidae. During the deposition of the exocuticle, the apical plasma membrane of epidermal cells forms finger-like extensions and numerous invaginations. In the ecdysial space of individuals in late premolt we observed cellular extensions surrounded by bundles of tubules.     

Cytoplasmic streaming does not drive intercellular passage in staminal hairs ofSetcreasea purpurea

Summary The effect of inhibition of cytoplasmic streaming on intercellular passage of carboxyfluorescein (CF) in staminal hairs ofS. purpurea was examined. Tip cells of staminal hairs were microinjected with buffered-CF. Cytoplasmic streaming was then inhibited by addition of KCN or NaN₃ to the external bathing solution. In separate experiments, cytoplasmic streaming was inhibited by microinjection of cytochalasin D along with the buffered-CF. CF passage over a 5 minutes treatment period was monitored by video fluorescence microscopy and video intensity analysis. Cytoplasmic streaming ceased within 1 minute of inhibitor agent treatment, however, little change in the kinetics of intercellular passage was noted over the 5 minute experimental period. Th us, cytoplasmic streaming plays no major role in the regulation of intercellular passage of the hydrophilic, negatively charged molecule CF.The work is dedicated to professor Saal Zalik, Department of Plant Science, University of Alberta, on his 65th birthday.     

Functional implications of the staminal lever mechanism in Salvia cyclostegia (Lamiaceae)

Background and Aims

Flower morphology and inflorescence architecture affect pollinator foraging behaviour and thereby influence the process of pollination and the reproductive success of plants. This study explored possible ecological functions of the lever-like stamens and the floral design in Salvia cyclostegia.

Methods

Flower construction was experimentally manipulated by removing either the lower lever arms or the upper fertile thecae of the two stamens from a flower. The two types of manipulated individuals were intermixed with the control ones and randomly distributed in the population.

Key Results

Removing the sterile lower lever arms significantly reduced handling time per flower of the main pollinator, Bombus personatus. Interestingly, this manipulation did not increase the number of flowers probed per plant visit, but instead reduced it, i.e. shortened the visit sequence of the bumble-bees. Both loss of staminal lever function by removing lower lever arms and exclusion of self pollen by removing upper fertile thecae significantly reduced seed set per flower and seed set per plant. Both the manipulations interacted significantly with inflorescence size for the effect on female reproductive output.

Conclusions

Though the intact flowers demand a long handling time for pollinators, the reversible staminal lever is of advantage by promoting dispersal of pollen and thus the male function. The particular floral design in S. cyclostegia contributes to the floral constancy of B. personatus bumble-bees, with the lower lever arms acting as an optical cue for foraging cognition.     

Cell wall structure of staminal hairs ofTradescantia virginica and its relation with growth

Summary The loose cuticles of the cells of wilted staminal hairs ofTradescantia virginica do not contain cellulose at all; (compare fig. 6 with fig. 5 and 7). They exhibit a positive rodlet birefringence with reference to the cell axis, which is probably due to cuticular folds and to longitudinal spaces inside the cuticle. There is a faint negative intrinsic birefringence in normal as well as in dewaxed cuticles, suggesting the presence of chemically bound, radially oriented chain molecules in these longitudinal spaces. (See table 1 and fig. 8.)According to the oblique extinction of single cell walls between crossed nicols and according to the fact that the cell wall, if torn, sometimes shows unwinding spirals (fig. 1, 2) the fibrillar structure of the cellulose cell wall in many cells must be oriented according to a flat Z- or S-spiral. In other cells this structure is predominantly transverse.Electron micrographs show that in addition to the more or less transversely oriented predominant inner layer of the cell wall, there is an outer layer with more or less isotropic, fibrillar structure (fig. 10, 11, 12). This is explained by assuming that the outer layer is in a less favourable position for intussusception of new fibrils during growth than the inner one, which will cause a reversion of the originally transverse fibril orientation in the former. The same layer structure is already found in very young cells, still showing cell division; (fig. 13, 14). The fibril thickness is about 100 Å.The cell walls separating the cells of the staminal hairs are perforated by some 800 holes of about 0,1 diameter, which probably contained plasmodesmata, (fig. 15, 16).     

Demographic vulnerability of the clonal and endangered meadow thistle

For effective management of endangered species it is pivotal to understand why a species is endangered and which key life cycle components are involved in its response to environmental changes. Our objective was to investigate the response of rosettes of the redlisted clonal herb Cirsium dissectum to anthropogenic nutrient enrichment, which threatens its populations, and the consequences of these responses for its population dynamics. We constructed matrix population models with demographic data from three populations and four annual transitions and we decomposed the spatiotemporal variation in projected population growth rates into contributions from life cycle components. These patterns were compared with below-ground rosette dynamics in different fields, and with the below- and above-ground rosette dynamics in a garden experiment with nutrient enrichment and competing grasses. The decomposition analysis revealed that increased clonal rosette formation and decreased rosette survival were driving the spatial variation in the population growth rate. Excavating the below-ground rhizome network revealed a higher rosette turn-over in experimentally fertilized garden plots, which not only resulted in increased plot-level extinction, but also in increased spread of the clonal offspring. This supported the observed trend among field populations: rosette formation trades off with rosette survival. Surviving seedlings were only found in areas where the topsoil had been removed. The endangered C. dissectum is vulnerable when its habitat becomes more productive, because this species does not have the necessary capability to build up biomass. Small-scale disturbances such as created by sod-cutting or trampling cattle are essential for seedling establishment and necessary to render the explorative strategy of rhizomatous clonal spread successful.