Establishment of papaya banker plant system for parasitoid, Encarsia sophia (Hymenoptera: Aphilidae) against Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) in greenhouse tomato production

The silverleaf whitefly, Bemisia tabaci biotype B (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), is a key pest of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) and other vegetable crops worldwide. To combat this pest, a non-crop banker plant system was evaluated that employs a parasitoid, Encarsia sophia (Girault & Dodd) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) with whitefly, Trialeurodes variabilis (Quaintance) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), as an alternative host for rearing and dispersal of the parasitoid to the target pest. (a) Multi-choice and no-choice greenhouse experiments were conducted to determine host specificity of T. variabilis to papaya (Carica papaya L.) and three vegetable crops including tomato, green bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), and cabbage (Brassica oleracea L.). The result showed that papaya was an excellent non-crop banker plant for supporting the non-pest alternative host, T. variabilis, whose adults had a strong specificity to papaya plants for feeding and oviposition in both multi-choice and no-choice tests. (b) The dispersal ability of E. sophia was investigated from papaya banker plants to tomato and green bean plants infested with B. tabaci, as well as to papaya control plants infested with T. variabilis; and (c) the percent parasitism by E. sophia on T. variabilis reared on papaya plants and on B. tabaci infested on tomato plants was also evaluated. These data proved that E. sophia was able to disperse at least 14.5 m away from papaya plants to target tomato, bean or papaya control plants within 48–96 h. Furthermore, E. sophia was a strong parasitoid of both T. variabilis and B. tabaci. There was no significant difference in percent parasitism by E. sophia on T. variabilis (36.2–47.4%) infested on papaya plants or B. tabaci (29–45.9%) on tomato plants. Thus, a novel banker plant system for the potential management of B. tabaci was established using papaya as a non-crop banker plant to support a non-pest alternative host, T. variabilis for maintaining the parasitoid to control B. tabaci. The established banker plant system should provide growers with a new option for long-term control of B. tabaci in greenhouse vegetable production. Ongoing studies on the papaya banker plant system are being performed in commercial greenhouses.     

Population suppression of Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) using yellow sticky traps and Eretmocerus nr. rajasthanicus (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) on tomato plants in greenhouses

We conducted three experiments for management of Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) biotype ‘B’ on tomatoes under greenhouse conditions: (i) vertically placing yellow sticky cards either parallel or perpendicular to tomato rows at a rate of 1 per 3‐m row; (ii) releasing Eretmocerus sp. nr. rajasthanicus once at 30 adults/m² in the high whitefly density greenhouses (> 10 adults/plant), or twice at 15 adults/m² at a 5‐day interval in the low whitefly density greenhouses (< 10 adults/plant); and (iii) using combinations of yellow sticky cards that were placed vertically parallel to tomato rows and parasitoids released once at 30/m² in high whitefly density greenhouses or twice at 15/m² at a 5‐day interval in low whitefly density greenhouses. Our data show that yellow sticky cards trapped B. tabaci adults and significantly reduced whitefly populations on tomato. The yellow sticky cards that were placed parallel to tomato rows caught significantly more whitefly adults than those placed perpendicular to tomato rows on every sampling date. In the treatment where parasitoids were released once at 30/m² in high whitefly density greenhouses, the number of live whitefly nymphs were reduced from 4.6/leaf to 2.9/leaf in 40 days as compared with those on untreated plants on which live whitefly nymphs increased from 4.4/leaf to 8.9/leaf. In the treatment where parasitoids were released twice at 15/m² in low whitefly density greenhouses, the numbers of live nymphs of B. tabaci on tomato leaves were reduced from 2.1/leaf to 1.7/leaf in 20 days as compared with those on untreated plants on which numbers of live nymphs of B. tabaci increased from 2.2/leaf to 4.5/leaf. In the treatment of yellow sticky cards and parasitoid release once at 30/m² in high whitefly density greenhouses, the numbers of live nymphs of B. tabaci on tomato leaves were reduced from 7.2/leaf to 1.9/leaf, and in the treatment of yellow sticky cards and parasitoid release twice at 15/m² at a 5‐day interval at low whitefly density, the numbers of live nymphs of B. tabaci on tomato leaves were reduced from 2.5/leaf to 0.8/leaf; whereas the numbers of live nymphs of B. tabaci on untreated plants increased from 4.4/leaf to 8.9/leaf. An integrated program for management of B. tabaci on greenhouse vegetables by using yellow sticky cards, parasitoids and biorational insecticides is discussed.     

Ornamental pepper as banker plants for establishment of Amblyseius swirskii (Acari: Phytoseiidae) for biological control of multiple pests in greenhouse vegetable production

Silverleaf whitefly, Bemisia tabaci biotype B (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande), and chilli thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), are key pests of vegetable crops in the US. The present study established ornamental peppers as banker plants supporting Amblyseius swirskii (Acari: Phytoseiidae) against the three pests. Specifically, this study (a) evaluated survival and population buildup of A. swirskii on three ornamental pepper varieties, Masquerade (MA), Red Missile (RM), and Explosive Ember (EE) in both laboratory and greenhouses and (b) determined the predation of A. swirskii reared on ornamental pepper plants to the targeted pests under greenhouse conditions. The results showed that the three pepper varieties were excellent banker plants and able to support at least ∼1000 of all stages of A. swirskii per plant in greenhouse conditions and allow them to complete their life cycle. A. swirskii dispersed or released from the banker plants to target plants, resulting in significant suppression of the three pests, i.e., after 14 d post-release, a significantly lower average of 2.75 B. tabaci and 13.4 all stages of thrips (chilli thrips and western flower thrips) were found per bean plant, respectively, compared to 379.5 B. tabaci and 235.4 all stages of thrips per plant in the control. Furthermore, our experiment observed that the sweet pepper seedlings closed to banker plants were healthy, whereas those without banker plants were heavily infested by chilli thrips; their growth seriously stunted or died. This is the first report of ornamental pepper as banker plants supporting A. swirskii against three notorious pests. This established banker plant system could be a new addition to the integrated pest management programs for sustainable control of these three pests in greenhouse vegetables.     

Evaluation of the local population of Eretmocerus mundus (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) for biological control of Bemisia tabaci biotype B (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) in greenhouse peppers in Argentina

Bemisia tabaci biotype B is a key pest in pepper crops in Argentina. The parasitoid Eretmocerus mundus is frequently found parasitizing this whitefly in greenhouses without pesticide applications. The present studies were carried out with the objective of evaluating control obtained with different rate and number of parasitoid releases under experimental conditions. Release rate: cages with pepper pots were positioned in an experimental greenhouse and randomly assigned to the release rate treatments (0, 1 and 3 pairs of E. mundus/plant/week with a total of three introductions). Number of releases: similar cages were assigned to the number of parasitoid introduction treatments (0, 1, 2 and 3) with the best release rate obtained in the previous trial. In both assays whitefly (adults and nymphs) and parasitoid (parasitized nymphs) population sizes in each cage were monitored weekly for a period of 10 weeks. Results suggested that the introduction of 2 E. mundus/plant/week was enough to suppress host population compared to control treatment (peaks of 7.75 adults and 58.75 nymphs/cage and 643.75 adults and 1598 nymphs/cage, respectively) (p < 0.05), with 85% of parasitism. E. mundus had to be introduced three times to achieve the best pest control (peaks of 1.17 adults and 20.33 nymphs/cage vs. 55.67 adults and 75 nymphs/cage in control treatment) with 84% of parasitism (p < 0.05). These results were then validated in a pepper crop under experimental greenhouse conditions. Whitefly population was lower in those greenhouses where E. mundus was released compared to control greenhouses (0.15 adults and 0.71 nymphs/4 leaves and 0.73 adults and 1.64 nymphs/4 leaves, respectively), with a peak of 54% of parasitism (p < 0.05). We concluded that good suppression of B. tabaci could be achieved using E. mundus under spring conditions in Argentina.     

Delayed development of the whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) and increased parasitism by Encarsia bimaculata in response to sublethal doses of piperonyl butoxide

Abstract Effects of sublethal piperonyl butoxide (PB) on parasitization of Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius ) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) by Encarsia bimaculata Heraty et Polaszek (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) were evaluated both in cage and greenhouse experiments. When first, second and third instar B. tabaci nymphs were treated with PB, all but the first instar were significantly prolonged. Data indicated that sublethal PB could improve E. bimaculata parasitism rates without influencing parasitoid eclosion rates. Prolonged development increased rates of parasitism by E. bimaculata, from 17.6% to 24.7% in cages, presumably by increasing the duration of host exposure. Sublethal PB combined with E. bimaculata as an integrated approach to control B. tabaci was evaluated using life table parameters under greenhouse conditions. Indices of population trend (I) calculated from life tables were estimated at 4.6 for B. tabaci exposed to PB and parasitoids compared to 14.1 with parasitoids alone and 23.5 in untreated controls. The results showed that after PB was sprayed and parasitoids introduced, development of B. tabaci was delayed and the peak of each stage was postponed. The older nymphal stage had highest mortality, primarily due to mortality caused by parasitism by E. bimaculata.     

Evaluation of a banker plant system for biological control of Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) on tomato,using two aphelinid parasitoids under field-cage conditions

ABSTRACT

This study evaluated the potential of two aphelinid parasitoids, Encarsia sophia (Girault & Dodd) and Eretmocerus hayati (Zolnerowich & Rose) to control the sweetpotato whitefly Bemisia tabaci, (Gennadius) using a banker plant system over two consecutive years. The parasitism rates of both parasitoids on a tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) crop were determined using melon, Cucumis melo L. (Cucurbitaceae) and castor bean, Ricinus communis L. (Euphorbiaceae), as banker plants, respectively. The emergence rates of Er. hayati and En. sophia parasitoids from parasitised whiteflies on both banker plants exceeded 90% and 85%, respectively, which is 17–20 percentage points higher than that on the pupal card under field cage conditions. Parasitism (%) on banker plants was significantly higher for both parasitoids in the third week after release as compared to adult releases in the first year, reaching 15.2?±?1.3 and 24.0?±?1.4% for En. sophia and Er. hayati, respectively. However, no significant difference in parasitism (%) was observed between banker plant and pupal card release treatments in the second year. The combined release of the two parasitoids during the second year clearly showed a continuous increase in parasitism, which was higher than parasitism in the single parasitoid-release treatments by the 4th week after release. Whitefly populations were significantly lower in all parasitoid-release treatments than in the no-release control by 4–6 weeks into the study period in the second year, while no other significant differences were observed between treatments in either year. This study found that both banker plants efficiently supported populations of both parasitoids and improved their emergence compared to the pupal card.     

Searching and Oviposition Behavior of Anagrus atomus L. (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) on Four Host Plants of Its Host, the Green Leafhopper Empoasca decipiens Paoli (Homoptera: Cicadellidae)

Anagrus atomus L. is an important egg parasitoid of the green leafhopper Empoasca decipiens Paoli. In this study the ability of the parasitoid to locate and parasitize its host was investigated on four host plants, i.e., broad beans (Vicia faba L.), sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum L.), cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.), and French beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). For each plant species, the behavior of the parasitoid was observed on E. decipiens infested and noninfested plants. Searching and oviposition behavior were characterized by drumming, probing, and resting. Parasitoids spent significantly less time on non-infested than infested plants, 274.5 and 875.7 s, respectively, and no probing behavior was observed on non-infested plants. Frequency of resting behavior was significantly greater on non-infested than on infested plants. Total foraging time was significantly longer on infested than on non-infested plants, indicating that A. atomus females can efficiently discriminate between leaves with and without infestation. Parasitism of A. atomus was influenced by parasitoid density, with the highest parasitism rate (64.0%) obtained at a density of 10 A. atomus females/0.1356 m² but the number of parasitized eggs per female and the searching efficiency decreased with increasing parasitoid density.     

Compatibility of an entomopathogenic fungus with a predator and a parasitoid in the biological control of greenhouse whitefly

An ongoing debate in biological control consists of whether interference between biological agents can disrupt pest control. This study investigated the outcome of interactions between the entomopathogen Beauveria bassiana with the whitefly predator Dicyphus hesperus and the parasitoid Encarsia formosa, as well as their effect on the control of the greenhouse whitefly Trialeurodes vaporariorum on greenhouse tomato crops. Our objective was to determine whether the generalist B. bassiana would disrupt biological control by interfering with D. hesperus or E. formosa. In experimental greenhouses, whitefly, parasitoid and predator populations were established, and over 27 days, tomato plants were sprayed with three applications of the B. bassiana based product BotaniGard® (5.13×10³ conidia/mm²) or water (control). Populations of greenhouse whitefly and biological control organisms were regularly monitored in control and B. bassiana-treated compartments. Overall, 10.6% of all whiteflies in treated compartments were infected, and 0.98% were both infected and parasitized. There were 31.7 and 22.3% fewer immature and adult whiteflies, respectively, on B. bassiana-treated plants relative to controls. Parasitism by E. formosa and predation by D. hesperus occurred at rates of 7.5 and 2.5%, respectively, in B. bassiana-treated compartments, and 5 and 6%, respectively in control compartments. Our study suggests that applications of B. bassiana for short-term biological control of greenhouse whiteflies are compatible with the concurrent use of E. formosa and D. hesperus on greenhouse tomato crops.     

Tracking the movement of Nesidiocoris tenuis among banker plants and crops in a tomato greenhouse by DNA markers of host plants

The zoophytophagous predator, Nesidiocoris tenuis (Reuter) (Hemiptera: Miridae), is an important biological control agent. To maintain this insect, several non-crop host plants are used as banker plants in greenhouse crop systems. To optimize the efficiency of the predator-banker plant interaction, it is necessary to investigate how individual predators move between banker plants and crops. However, the movement is difficult to quantify under field conditions. Therefore, we investigated the movement of N. tenuis between tomato plants (Solanum lycopersicum L., Solanales: Solanaceae) and three banker plants (Cleome hassleriana Chod., Brassicales: Cleomaceae; Sesamum indicum L., Lamiales: Pedaliaceae; and Verbena × hybrida Voss, Lamiales: Verbenaceae) in a greenhouse by conducting PCR using plant-species-specific primers. Laboratory analysis results showed that our molecular method could detect N. tenuis activity within a relatively short time (≤ 24 h). In addition, N. tenuis predation on a pest species was unlikely to result in false detection of plant DNA in the pest (suggesting that N. tenuis had been on the plants). Multiple plant species were detected in adult insects collected from the greenhouse plants, indicating that N. tenuis frequently moved across the mentioned plant species. The movement patterns of N. tenuis between plant species varied substantially based on the plant species from which they were collected, which suggested each of the plant species had different functions for N. tenuis. Our findings revealed that planting multiple host plants would stabilize the N. tenuis population in biological control programs.

     

Intraguild interactions between the predator Macrolophus pygmaeus and the parasitoid Eretmocerus mundus,natural enemies of Bemisia tabaci

The native parasitoid Eretmocerus mundus Mercet and the predator Macrolophus pygmaeus Rambur are widely used to control Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) in Mediterranean tomato greenhouses. An optimal biological control strategy for B. tabaci should take into account intraguild interactions between these natural enemies. In this study, predator's prey preferences and prey consumption were studied when offered different parasitoid and whitefly stages. The effect of the host plant on the adults of both natural enemies was also examined. M. pygmaeus preferred to consume B. tabaci over E. mundus when immature stages and adults of B. tabaci and E. mundus were offered. They consumed a larger amount of healthy B. tabaci nymphs and adults than of parasitised nymphs or E. mundus adults. The predator M. pygmaeus interfered with the reproduction of E. mundus females on cotton but not on tomato. However, B. tabaci nymphal mortality on tomato associated with parasitoid host feeding was also lower when the adult parasitoids coexisted with the predators. The joint release of M. pygmaeus and E. mundus adults did not increase the control of the whitefly B. tabaci.     

Compatibility of Insect Growth Regulators with Eretmocerus eremicus (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) for Whitefly (Homoptera: Alyerodidae) Control on Poinsettias: II. Trials in Commercial Poinsettia Crops

The efficacy and cost of reduced release rates of the parasitoid Eretmocerus eremicus Rose and Zolnerowich (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) when combined with application of the insect growth regulator buprofezin were compared to those of a higher parasitoid release rate used alone for whitefly control (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) on poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. ex Koltz.). The trial was conducted in seven greenhouses in Methuen, Massachusetts from August through December 1997 and employed commercial poinsettia production practices. Two whiteflies species, Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood) and Bemisia argentifolii Bellows and Perring (= Bemisia tabaci [Gennadius] strain B), were present. Three treatments were examined: (1) E. eremicus used alone at a release rate of three females per plant per week (two greenhouses); (2) E. eremicus at an intermediate release rate of two females per plant per week, combined with mid-season use of buprofezin (two applications, spaced 1 week apart, applied in weeks 9 and 10) (two greenhouses); and (3) E. eremicus at a low release rate of one female per plant per week, combined with mid-season use of buprofezin, applied as in treatment 2 (two greenhouses). In addition, observations were made in one additional greenhouse at the site, in which the grower used pesticides for whitefly control. Prior to the start of the trial, cuttings used for all treatments experienced some pesticide use, first abamectinduring rooting and later buprofezin at potting to reduce whitefly numbers, which were initially very high. At harvest, densities of live whitefly nymphs were not statistically different among the biological control treatments, indicating that a low parasitoid release rate combined with buprofezin was as effective as a higher release rate of the parasitoid used alone. Nymphal densities in separate market samples (based on smaller sample sizes) showed differences among treatments, but all treatments, including the low parasitoid release rate + buprofezin maintained densities of live nymphs + pupae at or below approximately two per leaf, a level commercially acceptable in local markets. Control costs per single-stemmed poinsettia plant were $1.18 for the high parasitoid release treatment, $0.75 for the treatment of weekly releases of two female parasitoids per plant per week + buprofezin, $0.38 for the treatment of releases of one female parasitoid per plant per week + buprofezin, and $0.14 for the chemical control greenhouse.     

Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) population density and pupal size are dependent on rootstock and nitrogen in hydroponic tomato crop

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Trophic web associated with the South American tomato moth Tuta absoluta: implications for its conservation biological control in Argentina

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Field cage evaluation of interspecific interaction of two aphelinid parasitoids and biocontrol effect on Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) Middle East‐Asia Minor 1

To explore sustainably effective biological control measures to suppress the super pest Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) Middle East‐Asia Minor 1 and better understand the biological control effects of single and multiple releases of parasitoids, we evaluated the performance and interaction of two aphelinid parasitoids of B. tabaci, Eretmocerus hayati Zolnerowich & Rose (an exotic primary parasitoid) and Encarsia sophia (Girault & Dodd) (an autoparasitoid, which is controversial in a biological control program). Single species or two species were jointly (1:1 density ratio) released in field cages on cotton in Hebei province, China, in 2010. Results of the field cage experiment showed that all parasitoid release treatments were successful in reducing the densities of the host B. tabaci relative to the control in which no parasitoid was released. The combined release of two parasitoid species showed the highest control effect among the treatments. Different population growth trajectories indicated asymmetric competitive effects of En. sophia on Er. hayati. The densities of Er. hayati were significantly higher in the Er. hayati alone treatment than in the combined release treatment, while densities of En. sophia were lower in the En. sophia alone treatment than in the combined release treatment. Our results demonstrated interspecific competition between autoparasitoid En. sophia and exotic primary parasitoid Er. hayati. However, no evidence indicated that autoparasitoid En. sophia disrupted the host suppression achieved by primary parasitoid Er. hayati. The release of the autoparasitoid together with the primary parasitoid may not influence host suppression in biological control.     

Biological control of thrips [Thysanoptera: Thripidae] on greenhouse cucumber byAmblyseius cucumeris

The predatory miteAmblyseius cucumeris (Oudemans) [Acarina: Phytoseiidae] was evaluated as a biological control forThrips tabaci Lindeman andFrankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) [Thysanoptera: Thripidae] on greenhouse grown seedless cucumber.A. cucumeris spread throughout the greenhouses and provided control of both species of thrips.A. cucumeris adults persisted on plants for 7 weeks in the virtual absence of prey, and increased numerically in response to increases in prey population. On the basis of these resultsA. cucumeris is recommended as a useful biological control forT. tabaci andF. occidentalis on greenhouse cucumber. Publication No. 361, Agassiz Research Station, Agriculture Canada, Agassiz, B.C. Canada VOM 1AO.     

Abundance of Bemisia tabaci Gennadius (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) and its parasitoids on vegetables and cassava plants in Burkina Faso (West Africa)

The whitefly Bemisia tabaci is a pest of many agricultural and ornamental crops worldwide and particularly in Africa. It is a complex of cryptic species, which is extremely polyphagous with hundreds of host plants identified around the world. Previous surveys in western Africa indicated the presence of two biotypes of the invasive MED species (MED‐Q1 and MED‐Q3) living in sympatry with the African species SSA and ASL. This situation constitutes one of the rare cases of local coexistence of various genetic entities within the B. tabaci complex. In order to study the dynamics of the distribution and abundance of genetic entities within this community and to identify potential factors that could contribute to coexistence, we sampled B. tabaci populations in Burkina Faso in 2015 and 2016 on various plants, and also their parasitoids. All four genetic entities were still recorded, indicating no exclusion of local species by the MED species. While B. tabaci individuals were found on 55 plant species belonging to eighteen (18) families showing the high polyphagy of this pest, some species/biotypes exhibited higher specificity. Two parasitoid species (Eretmocerus mundus and Encarsia vandrieschei) were also recorded with E. mundus being predominant in most localities and on most plants. Our data indicated that whitefly abundance, diversity, and rate of parasitism varied according to areas, plants, and years, but that parasitism rate was globally highly correlated with whitefly abundance suggesting density dependence. Our results also suggest dynamic variation in the local diversity of B. tabaci species/biotypes from 1 year to the other, specifically with MED‐Q1 and ASL species. This work provides relevant information on the nature of plant–B. tabaci‐parasitoid interactions in West Africa and identifies that coexistence might be stabilized by niche differentiation for some genetic entities. However, MED‐Q1 and ASL show extensive niche overlap, which could ultimately lead to competitive exclusion.     

Functional response of Neoseiulus cucumeris (Oudemans) (Acari: Phytoseiidae) to Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) on tomato leaves

Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) is an important invasive pest of vegetables and other horticultural plants worldwide. In this study, the functional response of Neoseiulus cucumeris (Oudemans) to different stages of immature B. tabaci was evaluated under laboratory conditions. Predation experiments were conducted on tomato leaf discs (2.5?cm diameter) over a 24-h period at 26?±?1°C and 65?±?5% relative humidity with a L16:D8 photoperiod. The prey densities ranged from 5 to 90 immature stages (eggs and first- to fourth-instar nymphs) of B. tabaci per leaf disc. The results showed that the egg stage of B. tabaci was the most susceptible prey stage and that the mated female adult mite (3-day-old) was a more effective predator than the male adult mite. The functional response of adult N. cucumeris followed a Type II trend curve as shown in a logistic regression model. Adult N. cucumeris exhibited different predation tendencies towards prey in different stages of immaturity. The daily maximum number of eggs, first-, second- and third-instar nymphs of B. tabaci killed by a single female over a 24-h period (26?±?1°C, 65?±?5% RH and L16:D8 photoperiod) were 8.5, 5.2, 3.0 and 2.1, respectively, whereas the number killed by a single male was 6.0, 4.0, 2.3 and 1.8, respectively. The results of this study could help determine an effective B. tabaci biocontrol measure that employs a natural predator.     

Efficacy of multiple biocontrol agents against the sweet potato whitefly Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) on tomato

Abstract: Biological control provides an environmentally harmonious and potentially stable management tactic to combat noxious pests such as Bemisia tabaci, notorious for its resistance to synthetic pesticides. Bioassays conducted under control chamber conditions integrating applications of the parasitoid Encarsia formosa, reared for 20 years on Trialeurodes vaporariorum, and the fungus Verticillium lecanii on the third‐fourth instar nymphs of B. tabaci on tomato, showed a comparable effect between the parasitoid‐fungus combined treatment and the fungus treatment alone (70.7% vs. 70.4%). Analysis of our results indicates antagonism between the two biocontrol agents related to the parasitoids’ ability to discriminate between infected and healthy B. tabaci nymphs. The parasitoid treatment alone produced 36.3% mortality, with no mortality in the distilled water controls. The behavioural performance of the parasitoid could have either genetic or environmental causes. Bioassays studying the feeding habit of the imported mirid predator Macrolophus caliginosus (adults) and the indigenous mirid Camptotylus reuteri (nymphs and adults) on eggs, or early second instar nymphs of B. tabaci, and choice preference tests indicated a significant difference in feeding between M. caliginosus and C. reuteri. There was no significant difference in percentage feeding of M. caliginosus on eggs (2.2%) or second instar nymphs (8.0%). There was a significant difference in feeding of M. caliginosus adults (18.6%) when offered eggs and second instars in the same arena compared with eggs or second instars offered separately. These results could be attributed to the biological behaviour of the predator having a type III functional response. Studies with the local C. reuteri species showed no significant difference in adult and nymphal consumption on second instars of B. tabaci compared with nymphs on eggs. However, C. reuteri adults fed less on eggs compared with nymphs. This local predatory species appears to be more efficient than M. caliginosus in feeding on particular stages of B. tabaci without depending on prey density. This is further supported by the low consumption of both adults and nymphs in the choice test (4% and 2.3%, respectively) compared with M. caliginosus adults (18.6%).     

Ecological considerations for biological control of aphids in protected culture

Several braconid and aphelinid parasitoids, midges, lacewings, and ladybird beetles are used to control aphids in greenhouses. Here, I review three topics as ecological bases for the biological control of aphids in a protected culture: the preliminary evaluation of biological control agents, natural enemy release strategies, and the effects of intraguild predation (IGP) on biological control. A comparison of several parasitoid species was conducted to select agents for the biological control of aphids; the intrinsic rate of natural increase was a useful criterion in the preliminary evaluation. To compare predators as biological control agents, the aphid-killing rate must be considered as a critical criterion, rather than reproductive criteria. The banker plant system (open rearing system) is used as a release method for Aphidius colemani and other natural enemies of aphids. Continuous release of parasitoid adults, which is the important characteristic of this method, has a stabilizing effect on population fluctuation in the aphid–parasitoid system. Two species of natural enemies can be used to control aphids in greenhouses. When one parasitoid and one predator are used simultaneously in a greenhouse, IGP of the parasitoid by the predator can occur, but the effect of IGP is less important in greenhouses than in the field.