Serologic surveillance of pathogens in a declining harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) population in Glacier Bay National Park, Alaska, USA and a reference site

The harbor seal population in Glacier Bay National Park, Alaska, has declined by over 70% since 1992. The reasons for this decline are not known. We examined serum antibodies and feces for evidence of exposure to multiple pathogens in this population. We also studied harbor seals from a reference site on Kodiak Island. In 2007, we found antibodies against Leptospira spp. in 31% of specimens from harbor seals in Glacier Bay, but no detectable serum antibodies in samples from Kodiak. In 2008, no samples had detectable antibodies against Leptospira spp. No serum antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii, morbilliviruses, or presence of Cryptosporidium in fecal samples were detected. However, Giardia was found in 6% of the fecal samples from Glacier Bay. Our results indicate that the harbor seal population in Glacier Bay National Park could be immunologically na?ve to distemper viruses and therefore vulnerable to these pathogens. Given the relatively low prevalence of antibodies and low titers, pathogens likely are not the reason for the harbor seal decline in Glacier Bay.     

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN FREE-RANGING HARBOR SEAL (PHOCA VITULINA) PUPS FROM SOUTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA, CANADA

Harbor seals ( Phoca vitulina ) are small pinnipeds that are widely distributed throughout the temperate coastal regions of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. We determined birth mass, neonatal growth rates, weaning age, and weaning mass of NE Pacific harbor seals ( P. v. richardsi ) during a capture-recapture study that spanned the nursing period (Sidney Island, British Columbia, Canada). Of 46 harbor seal pups initially captured, 28 were classified as newborns ( i. e. , < 24 h old). Mean body mass of newborns was 11.2 ± SE 0.31 kg. Pups were individually tagged and recaptured throughout the nursing period. Average daily mass gain during the nursing period was 394 ± 26 g. Mean birth mass of males did not differ significantly from females, although pups found with fetal pelage (lanugo) (21.4% of all newborns) were smaller at birth (9.8 ± 0.44 kg) than non-lanugo pups (11.6 ± 0.33 kg). Mean weaning mass was estimated at 23.6 ± 1.2 kg at a mean weaning age of 32 d ± 1.5 d. While birth and weaning masses differed little from the published data for offshore Sable Island harbor seals ( P. v. concolor ), British Columbia harbor seals are characterized by half the daily mass gain and a longer nursing period.     

Endocrine Changes in Harbor Seal (Phoca vitulina) Pups Undergoing Rehabilitation

Rehabilitating pinniped pups are often admitted to care centers as neonates and generally lack maternal investment and are in poor body condition. Upon admittance to a rehabilitation facility, pups are typically fed a milk replacement formula via gavage, which is switched to frozen fish upon weaning. While rehabilitation has been successful in terms of recovery and release, preweaning growth rates in captivity are consistently lower than in the wild. Indicators of stress (cortisol and total thyroxine; TT4), and standard morphometrics, of harbor seal pups in rehabilitation (n = 20) were determined for both preweaned and weaned pups. Hormone concentrations and standard morphometrics from pups in care were compared with free‐ranging harbor seal pups (n = 59). Pups in rehabilitation gained mass on both milk and fish diets. Preweaned pups had greater mean serum cortisol and similar TT4 concentrations than weaned pups. Free‐ranging harbor seal pups were heavier and longer than preweaned and weaned pups in rehabilitation. The free‐ranging pups had the lowest cortisol and highest TT4 concentrations of any of the pups. These results suggest that weaned pups that have undergone rehabilitation are not physiologically equivalent to free‐ranging weaned pups. Additional research is needed regarding physiological changes in endocrine values during early development under captive care conditions. This information should be useful to marine mammal rehabilitation centers in their development of care protocols and release criteria for rehabilitating harbor seal pups. Zoo Biol. 32:134–141, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Effects of anoxia and low pH on organic ion transport and electrolyte distribution in harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) kidney slices

Summary The present study was undertaken to examine the effects of anoxia and/or low pH on active organic ion transport and tissue water and electrolyte distribution in freshly prepared cortical slices from harbor seal and rat kidneys.p-Aminohippurate (PAH) and tetraethylammonium (TEA) were used as a representative organic anion and cation, respectively. The slice uptake of PAH was not influenced by the incubation medium pH over a range of 5.0–7.5 in the harbor seal while it was very sensitive to the medium pH in the rat, decreasing significantly with reductions in pH (Fig. 1). Although the TEA uptake decreased in anoxia in both species, it decreased considerably less in the harbor seal than in the rat (40% vs 74%) (Fig. 2). However, in contrast to the PAH transport system, the TEA uptake decreased significantly at low pH in both species. The magnitudes of increase in intracellular Na and of decrease in intracellular K in anoxia were consistently less in the harbor seal than in the rat, especially at low pH (Fig. 3). However, the pH dependence of Na–K-ATPase activity of the crude renal cortical homogenate was not different between the two species (Fig. 4). These results, together with the previous finding on the anoxic tolerance of the renal organic anion transport system, indicate that (1) the overall anoxic tolerance of active renal transport systems for both organic anions and cations is greater in the harbor seal than in the rat, and (2) the renal organic anion (but not cation) transport system is resistant to low pH in the harbor seal.Abbreviations 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetate - KRP Krebs-Ringer phosphate buffer - PAH para-aminohippurate - S/M slice to medium concentration ratio - TEA tetraethylammonium     

Lesions in mink (Mustela vison) infected with giant kidney worm (Dioctophyma renale).

Adult Dioctophyma renale occupied the enlarged renal pelvis of the right kidney of naturally infected mink. Lesions in the kidney parenchyma consisted of connective tissue proliferation in the interstitial tissue, tubular atrophy and fibrosis, and periglomerular fibrosis. The luminal surface of the renal pelvis wall was formed of numerous papillae covered with transitional epithelium. The nematodes in the lumen were bathed in an albuminous fluid containing red blood cells, epithelial cells and D. renale eggs. The left (uninfected) kidney was 60% larger than the left kidney of normal mink.     

CORRECTING AERIAL SURVEY COUNTS OF HARBOR SEALS (PHOCA VITULINA RICHARDSI) IN WASHINGTON AND OREGON

Aerial surveys of harbor seals on land produce only a minimum assessment of the population; a correction factor to account for the missing animals is necessary to estimate total abundance. In 1991 and 1992, VHF radio tags were deployed on harbor seals ( n = 124) at six sites in Washington and Oregon. During aerial surveys a correction factor to account for seals in the water was determined from the proportion of radio-tagged seals on shore during the pupping season. This proportion ranged from 0.54 to 0.74. Among the six sites there was no significant difference in the proportion of animals on shore nor was there a difference in age/sex categories of seals on shore between sites. The pooled correction factor for determining total population abundance was 1.53. An additional 32 seals were radio tagged in 1993 at one of the sites used in 1991. Comparing data from the two years, we found no interannual variation. Aerial surveys of all known harbor seal haul-out sites in Washington ( n = 319) and Oregon ( n = 68) were flown during the peak of the pupping season, 1991–1993. The Washington and Oregon harbor seal population was divided into two stocks based on pupping phenology, morphometics, and genetics. Mean counts for the Washington inland stock were 8,710 in 1991, 9,018 in 1992, and 10,092 in 1993. Oregon and Washington coastal stock mean counts were 18,363 in 1991, 18,556 in 1992, and 17,762 in 1993. Multiplying the annual count by the correction factor yielded estimates of harbor seal abundance in the Washington inland stock of 13,326 (95% CI = 11,637–15,259) for 1991, 13,798 (95% CI = 11,980–15,890) for 1992, and 15,440 (95% CI = 13,382–17,814) for 1993. In the Oregon and Washington coastal stock the corrected estimate of harbor seal abundance was 28,094 (95% CI = 24,697–31,960) in 1991, 28,391 (95% CI = 24,847–32,440) for 1992, and 27,175 (95% CI = 23,879–30,926) for 1993.     

Antibodies to phocine herpesvirus-1 are common in North American harbor seals (Phoca vitulina)

Phocine herpesvirus-1 (PhHV-1) has been associated with morbidity and high mortality in neonatal harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) along the Pacific coast of California (USA) and in northern Europe. Seals dying with PhHV-1 associated disease in California primarily have histopathologic evidence of adrenal necrosis or adrenalitis with herpesviral inclusion bodies. Little is known about prevalence of exposure to PhHV-1, modes of disease transmission, and viral pathogenesis in free-ranging harbor seal populations. To evaluate the prevalence in North America, 866 serum samples collected between 1994 and 2002 from harbor seals captured or stranded on the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of North America were assayed by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for evidence of PhHV-1 exposure. Samples from three harbor seal age classes (pre-weaned, weaned, and subadults/adults) were obtained from each of four regions to compare exposure among sex, age class, and region. We found increasing prevalence with age as 37.5% of pre-weaned pups, 87.6% of weaned pups, and 99.0% of subadults and adults were seropositive. When accounting for age, no associations between seropositivity and sex or location of harbor seals were detected. These data indicate that PhHV-1 is endemic in the harbor seal populations of North America.     

Congenital neuroglial heterotopia in a neonatal harbor seal (Phoca vitulina richardsi ) with evidence of recent exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

A male neonatal Pacific harbor seal (Phoca vitulina richardsi) stranded off the coast of California, USA, was presented for rehabilitation with numerous partially haired, soft tissue masses around the mouth and in the oropharynx. Because of the extent of the lesions, the seal was humanely euthanized. Histologically, the masses consisted of subepithelial connective tissue and subcutis expanded by a proliferation of streams and bundles of spindle to stellate cells. Morphology of these cells suggested a neural origin, which was confirmed by positive immunohistochemistry for two neural markers, S-100 protein and glial fibrillary acidic protein, so the masses were diagnosed as neuroglial heterotopia. Heterotopic neuroglial tissue is a rare lesion comprised of benign mature neural tissue in an ectopic location with no connection to the central nervous system. Results of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) metabolite analysis of bile indicated recent exposure to a petroleum source. Although fetal exposure to PAHs in utero can cause neurotoxicity and affect normal embryonic development, it is unknown whether gestational exposure occurred in this case.     

Interannual differences in postrelease movements of rehabilitated harbor seal pups (Phoca vitulina richardii) in the Salish Sea

Despite the large number of harbor seals (Phoca vitulina richardii) rehabilitated worldwide, few studies have been conducted on postrelease movement and behavior of rehabilitated harbor seal pups. We compared interannual differences in movements and survival of 24 rehabilitated seal pups released in the Salish Sea in 2010 (n = 10), 2012 (n = 5), 2013 (n = 5), and 2014 (n = 4). We also compared the postrelease movement of these seals to the movement of 10 wild seal pups tracked in the same ecosystem in 2010. Transmission duration, total cumulative distance, and average daily distance varied annually. Maximum linear distance traveled from the release site was similar for the rehabilitated seal groups. Compared to wild seals (n = 10), and consistent with prior studies, rehabilitated pups (n = 24) traveled significantly farther daily and cumulatively than wild weaned pups. Unlike in a prior study in this ecosystem, we found no significant difference between transmission duration in wild and rehabilitated pups.     

Hematology and serum chemistry comparisons between free-ranging and rehabilitated harbor seal (Phoca vitulina richardsi) pups

The objectives of this study were to compare the hematology and serum chemistry values between free-ranging and stranded harbor seal (Phoca vitulina richardsi) pups and to ascertain how blood values of stranded pups changed during the rehabilitation process. Coincident with these comparisons, reference values were obtained for free-ranging pups. Stranded harbor seal pups (n = 28) recovered from areas between Pebble Beach and Moss Landing, California (USA) were admitted to The Marine Mammal Center, Sausalito, from March to May 1995, 1996, and 1998. Blood samples were collected from harbor seal pups before and after rehabilitation. As a control group, wild harbor seal pups were captured at Pebble Beach and Elkhorn Slough (n = 42) during the 1995, 1996, and 1998 pupping seasons. Mean eosinophil and calcium values of wild pups were significantly greater than those of newly admitted pups, whereas mean bands, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, total bilirubin, and chloride values were significantly lower (P < or = 0.05). Mean neutrophil, band, lymphocyte, eosinophil, basophil, calcium, phosphorus, blood urea nitrogen, potassium, total protein, and globulin values of rehabilitated pups increased significantly after 2-3 mo in captivity, whereas, mean red blood cell, hemoglobin, hematocrit, cholesterol, and total bilirubin values decreased significantly (P < or = 0.05).     

Seroprevalence of Antibodies against Seal Influenza A(H10N7) Virus in Harbor Seals and Gray Seals from the Netherlands

In the spring and summer 2014, an outbreak of seal influenza A(H10N7) virus infection occurred among harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) off the coasts of Sweden and Denmark. This virus subsequently spread to harbor seals off the coasts of Germany and the Netherlands. While thousands of seals were reported dead in Sweden, Denmark and Germany, only a limited number of seals were found dead in the Netherlands. To determine the extent of exposure of seals in the Netherlands to influenza A/H10N7 virus, we measured specific antibody titers in serum samples from live-captured seals and seals admitted for rehabilitation in the Netherlands by use of a hemagglutination inhibition assay and an ELISA. In harbor seals in 2015, antibodies against seal influenza A(H10N7) virus were detected in 41% (32 out of 78) pups, 10% (5 out of 52) weaners, and 58% (7 out of 12) subadults or adults. In gray seals (Halichoerus grypus) in 2015, specific antibodies were not found in the pups (n = 26), but in 26% (5 out of 19) of the older animals. These findings indicate that, despite apparent low mortality, infection with seal influenza A(H10N7) virus was geographically widespread and also occurred in grey seals.     

IMMUNOLOGICAL AND HEMATOLOGICAL PARAMETERS IN CAPTIVE HARBOR SEALS (PHOCA VITULINA)

Peripheral blood was collected from 13 captive seals (12 harbor seals and 1 gray seal) of various ages to study different immunological and hematological parameters. In vitro mitogenic reactivity of blood lymphocytes was measured by means of a microculture lymphocyte transformation test (LTT). After stimulation with different doses of the mitogens concanavalin A (Con A) and pokeweed mitogen (PWM), all examined seals showed significant proliferative responses to each mitogen. Furthermore, mitogenic reactivity significantly decreased with animal age suggesting this parameter of seal lymphocyte function is age-related. The present experiments support that the LTT is a suitable tool to monitor the functional capacity of seal lymphocytes. By means of the erythrocyte-rosette (E:-rosette) test it was demonstrated that a subpopulation of mononuclear seal bloosd leucocytes formed rosettes with sheep red blood cells (Srbc). This observation indicates that the phenomenon probably represents a marker for T lymphocytes in the seal as in several other mammalian species. Furthermore, the percentage of Srbc rosette-forming cells decreased with the age of the animals. Total blood leucocyte counts and differential leucocyte counts were determined by light microscopy. The number of leucocytes varied considerably among individual animals. Parallel to a significant decline of the percentage of lymphocytes with age, a corresponding increase in the percentage of neutrophils was demonstrated. In all of the seals, the percentages of monocytes and eosinophils were found to be low with only minor individual variation. The LTT and the E-rosette test are suggested as potential tools to elucidate immunological disorders in the seal.     

Contrast sensitivity in a harbor seal (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Phoca vitulina</Emphasis>)

In this study, the contrast sensitivity function (CSF) of one harbor seal was determined behaviorally in a go-/no-go-experiment at an ambient light of 0.9 lx in air. Contrast sensitivity was assessed as the reciprocal value of the threshold contrast for spatial frequencies varying between 0.03 and 1.5 cycles/deg, which were displayed with contrast ranging from 0.02 to 1 on a TFT monitor with a mean luminance of 3.8 cd/m2. The CSF of the harbor seal shows the general characteristics described for other species with a peak at an intermediate frequency, a low frequency roll-off and a high frequency cut-off towards the harbor seal’s resolution limit determined in a previous study. The position of the CSF’s peak lies at approximately 0.5 cycles/deg and adopts an absolute height of 40. These results compare well with the cat’s CSF assessed at a comparable adaptation light which might reflect similarities in lifestyle and optics.     

Chromosomal homeologies between human, harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) and the putative ancestral carnivore karyotype revealed by Zoo-FISH

We report on the construction of the first comparative Zoo-FISH map of a marine mammal. Zoo-FISH with DNA probes from a human chromosome-specific library to metaphase spreads of the harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) disclosed 31 conserved syntenic segments covering the complete autosomal complement and the X chromosome. Comparison with Zoo-FISH maps of other species reveals that the harbor seal shares a high degree of karyotypic homeology with the human complement and an even higher degree with the conordinal cat complement. These findings suggest that pinniped, felid and human karyotypes have maintained conserved complements. Based on data of Zoo-FISH and comparative cytogenetics, a Zoo-FISH map of the ancestral carnivore karyotype (Z-CAR) is proposed. Flow cytometry revealed that the DNA value of the harbor seal genome is 79% that of the human genome. Received: 29 October 1996; in revised form: 16 December 1996 / Accepted: 18 December 1996     

Harbor seal pup dispersal and individual morphology,hematology, and contaminant factors affecting survival

Understanding the factors affecting individual harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) survival is essential for determining population level health risks. We estimated postweaning dispersal, and modeled the effects of morphology, hematology, and blubber contaminants on the survival of recently weaned harbor seal pups using a mark recapture framework. We deployed satellite transmitters on apparently healthy pups captured in San Francisco Bay (SFB, n = 19) and Tomales Bay (TB, n = 7), and pups released after rehabilitation that stranded along the central California coast preweaning (n = 21). Dispersal distances were further than previously reported for harbor seal pups (maximum = 802 km) which has implications for understanding risks to this vulnerable age class. We found differences in body condition, serum immunoglobulin and thyroxine (T4) concentrations, white blood cell count, and blubber organohalogen contamination (OH) among the three groups. Overall, increased T4, decreased OH, and increased mass were associated with greater survival probabilities; whereas, among stranded seals, greater mass gain, shorter time in rehabilitation, and admission to rehabilitation earlier in the season were associated with greater survival probabilities. Attention to these latter factors may improve the success of rehabilitation efforts. For wild pups, reduction of legacy contaminants and direct causes of mortality, such as ship strike, may enhance pup survival.     

Haul-out behavior of harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) in Hood Canal, Washington

The goal of this study was to model haul-out behavior of harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) in the Hood Canal region of Washington State with respect to changes in physiological, environmental, and temporal covariates. Previous research has provided a solid understanding of seal haul-out behavior. Here, we expand on that work using a generalized linear mixed model (GLMM) with temporal autocorrelation and a large dataset. Our dataset included behavioral haul-out records from archival and VHF radio tag deployments on 25 individual seals representing 61,430 seal hours. A novel application for increased computational efficiency allowed us to examine this large dataset with a GLMM that appropriately accounts for temporal autocorellation. We found significant relationships with the covariates hour of day, day of year, minutes from high tide and year. Additionally, there was a significant effect of the interaction term hour of day : day of year. This interaction term demonstrated that seals are more likely to haul out during nighttime hours in August and September, but then switch to predominantly daylight haul-out patterns in October and November. We attribute this change in behavior to an effect of human disturbance levels. This study also examined a unique ecological event to determine the role of increased killer whale (Orcinus orca) predation on haul-out behavior. In 2003 and 2005 these harbor seals were exposed to unprecedented levels of killer whale predation and results show an overall increase in haul-out probability after exposure to killer whales. The outcome of this study will be integral to understanding any changes in population abundance as a result of increased killer whale predation.     

AGONISTIC BEHAVIOR IN HARBOR SEALS (PHOCA VITULINA) IN RELATION TO THE AVAILABILITY OF HAUL-OUT SPACE

The hypothesis that haul-out space is a contested resource among harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) was tested by comparing the number of agonistic interactions and the time devoted to them, at a haul-out with unlimited space and a haul-out with limited space, in Humboldt County, California. 798 agonistic interactions were recorded in 160 h of observation. The average number of agonistic interactions per seal per hour and the time spent on these interactions were significantly higher at the site with limited haul-our space (P < 0.05, n= 20). At this restricted site, the frequency of agonistic interactions was positively correlated with seal density (r= 0.61, P < 0.05, n= 20), as was time spent on agonistic interactions (r= 0.84, P < 0.05, n= 20). Size, sex, and age-class of individuals all influenced agonistic interactions. In 72.5% of displacements, smaller seals were displaced by larger ones. This may support claims that some harbor seal populations maintain a size-based dominance hierarchy. The results of this study support the hypothesis that there is competition among harbor seals for suitable haul-out space where this resource is limited. The outcome of these interactions may be predicted, at least in part, by theoretical models on pay-off asymmetries, resource holding power, and the prior residency effect.     

THE MOST NORTHERLY HARBOR SEAL, PHOCA VITULINA, AT PRINS KARLS FORLAND, SVALBARD

The harbor seal ( Phoca vitulina ) has its northernmost distribution at the Norwegian arctic archipelago of Svalbard. Little information exists on this particular harbor seal population. The present paper summarizes this information, and gives the result of surveys of harbor seals conducted in Svalbard in 1984, 1985 and 1987. These surveys show that harbor seals in Svalbard are limited to the area around Prins Karls Forland, the westernmost island in the archipelago. The harbor seal population at Prins Karls Forland numbers at least five to six hundred animals.     

DIVING BEHAVIOR OF THE PACIFIC HARBOR SEAL (PHOCA VITULINA RICHARDII) IN MONTEREY BAY, CALIFORNIA

Physical environment and physiological characteristics of marine mammals potentially affect the duration and depth of diving. Härkönen (1987b) proposed a hypothesis that the harbor seal would gain maximum energy by foraging at intermediate depths. To investigate this hypothesis, we studied diving behavior of the Pacific harbor seal (Phoca vitulina ricbardii) during 1995 through 1997 in Monterey Bay, California. Dive depths (n = 13,063 dives) were recorded via time‐depth recorders. Approximately 80% of recorded dives were classified as square dives (type I), which typically were associated with foraging in pinnipeds. Approximately 11% of dives were V dives (type II; 1,402 dives), and the remainder (1,225 dives) were skewed dives (type III and IV). The deepest recorded dive was 481 m, while the greatest duration was 35.25 min. Body mass explained the variability of durations of long dives for females (95th percentile; D₉₅♂=‐5.47 + 0.18 × (mass♀), r²= 0.91, 95% CI for slope = [0.08, 0.28], n= 5) and for males (D₉₅♂=‐5.86 + 0.18 × (mass♀), r²= 0.83, 95% CI for slope = [0.12, 0.24], n= 11). The large proportion of variability in deep dives, however, was explained by body mass only for males (95th percentile; Z₉₅♂=‐363.9 + 6.05 × (mass♀), r²= 0.83, 95% CI for slope = [3.93, 8.17], n= 11) and not for females (Z₉₅,♂=?148.1 +3.11 × (mass♀), r²= 0.58, 95% CI for slope = [‐1.7, 7.9], n= 5, 95% CI for slope= [?1.7, 7.9]). Median depths of presumed foraging dives of harbor seals in the Monterey Bay area were between 5 and 100 m, which were within the range of the previously reported depths for other areas (< 100 m). Our findings generally supported Härkönen's hypothesis that harbor seals forage in the intermediate depth in their environment.