Phylogeny, divergence times, and historical biogeography of New World Dryopteris (Dryopteridaceae)

? Premise of the study: Dryopteris is a large, cosmopolitan fern genus ideal for addressing questions about diversification, biogeography, hybridization, and polyploidy, which have historically been understudied in ferns. We constructed a highly resolved, well-supported phylogeny for New World Dryopteris and used it to investigate biogeographic patterns and divergence times. ? Methods: We analyzed relationships among 97 species of Dryopteris, including taxa from all major biogeographic regions, with analyses based on 5699 aligned nucleotides from seven plastid loci. Phylogenetic analyses used maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian inference. We conducted divergence time analyses using BEAST and biogeographic analyses using maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, Bayesian, and S-DIVA approaches. We explored the monophyly of subgenera and sections in the most recent generic classification and of geographic groups of taxa using Templeton tests. ? Key results: The genus Dryopteris arose ca. 42 million years ago (Ma). Most of the Central and South American species form a well-supported clade which arose 32 Ma, but the remaining New World species are the result of multiple, independent dispersal and vicariance events involving Asia, Europe, and Africa over the last 15 Myr. We identified six long-distance dispersal events and three vicariance events in the immediate ancestry of New World species; reconstructions for another four lineages were ambiguous. ? Conclusions: New World Dryopteris are not monophyletic; vicariance has dominated the history of the North American species, while long-distance dispersal prevails in the Central and South American species, a pattern not previously seen in plants.