| Abstract: | There are problems associated with all stages of the scaling-up of biological processes developed on a laboratory scale. The large size of industrial fermenters required for commercial viability (up to 100 m3) gives rise to problems of mixing, heat transfer, and control as well as problems in physically handling large volumes of liquids and gases. The concentration of products obtained from biological processes is low (typically 10 per cent), so recovery processes require a large energy input. The optimization and integration of all parts of the process, from the initial fermentation to marketable product, is essential. |
