Grass-fly larvae (Diptera,Chloropidae): Diversity,habitats, and feeding specializations

The fly family Chloropidae belongs to the higher Diptera series Acalyptratae. It is distributed worldwide and globally comprises 200 genera and about 3000 species in 4 subfamilies: Oscinellinae, Siphonellopsinae, Rhodesiellinae, and Chloropinae. In the fossil record, Chloropidae are known since the Oligocene, with 2 genera found in Baltic amber: one extinct, the other recent. The family includes several important agricultural pests (frit flies, gout flies, Meromyza, seed pests) which injure corn. The feeding preferences of chloropid larvae vary strongly: there are saprophages in the broad sense, true phytophages using both woody and grassy plants (mainly monocots), predators on egg masses of insects and spiders, as well as on scale insects and aphids, and ectoparasites of frogs. Among the 100 families of monocots (Liliopsida), only 11 include species serving as food plants for chloropid larvae. The greatest diversity of habitats and feeding types is observed in the subfamily Oscinellinae. The most advanced subfamily Chloropinae includes mostly phytophagous larvae. A possible scenario of ecological evolution within the family is briefly discussed.