AN ACCOUNT OF THE HATCHING STRATEGIES OF BIRDS

1. Three basic hatching methods are described together with one subsidiary method. The symmetrical method is characterized by rotation of the chick in the egg during hatching climax; a line of damage around the circumference of the egg is evident at the beginning of a pushing phase which causes a fairly symmetrical cap to be broken from the shell. The asymmetrical method is used by a few long-billed species; it involves little or no rotation of the chick in the egg, and produces asymmetrical shell remains. The megapodes have developed a unique hatching method in response to their unusual incubation conditions. Parental assistance has been observed in some species, but only as an auxiliary to either the symmetrical or asymmetrical method. Approximately 150 species have been categorized according to the hatching method(s) they use. 2. Among those species adopting the symmetrical method, there is considerable variability as to how far the chick turns in the egg during hatching climax. On this basis, a spectrum of behaviour, expressed in terms of angle of rotation (θ), has been proposed. At one end lie species such as the bobwhite quail and little owl (θ≥ 360°), and at the other, the ostrich and rhea (θ≤ 90°). 3. The theory that, with the exception of the megapodes, there is only one basic hatching method is examined. The tenets of this theory are found to be inconsistent with recent observations of species differences in hatching behaviour. It is concluded that hatching behaviour is governed by an intrinsic species-specific programme, in turn influenced by mechanical or other external factors. 4. The literature contains several suggestions as to the external factors that might influence hatching technique, but only one detailed investigation. It is proposed that interspecific differences in the mechanical properties of the egg integument (the shell and its underlying membranes) can be regarded as forming a spectrum from very brittle to comparatively tough. The amount of climax rotation by the chick is seen as an adaptive response to brittleness or toughness of the egg integument. The hatching technique of the chick is further modified as a response to the effect of moisture content on the integument. 5. The selective pressures leading to the evolution of the symmetrical and asymmetrical hatching methods are discussed. The previous model for the development of the asymmetrical method is amended to account for those species of gull which may adopt either method.