Modelling semantic transparency

We present models of semantic transparency in which the perceived transparency of English noun–noun compounds, and of their constituent words, is predicted on the basis of the expectedness of their semantic structure. We show that such compounds are perceived as more transparent when the first noun is more frequent, hence more expected, in the language generally; when the compound semantic relation is more frequent, hence more expected, in association with the first noun; and when the second noun is more productive, hence more expected, as the second element of a noun–noun compound. Taken together, our models of compound and constituent transparency lead us to two conclusions. Firstly, although compound transparency is a function of the transparencies of the constituents, the two constituents differ in the nature of their contribution. Secondly, since all the significant predictors in our models of compound transparency are also known predictors of processing speed, perceived transparency may itself be a reflex of ease of processing.