Temporal and microclimatic partitioning of the floral resources of Justicia aurea amongst a concourse of pollen vectors and nectar robbers

Summary The flowers of Justicia aurea, morphologically characteristic of ornithophily, attracted a diverse array of foragers where they occurred as a dense stand in the tropical forests at La Selva, Costa Rica, and so provided an arena for this study of competition and coexistence. Two hummingbird species (Phaethornis superciliosus and Campylopterus hemileucurus) visited the flowers legally early in the morning, and defended the nectar resource; a third smaller bird (P. longuemareus) foraged for nectar throughout the day but collected it illegally by piercing the corollas. In addition, nectar was harvested illegally by four species of stingless bee (Trigona) and by ants, creating a further drain on the limited floral resources.Consideration of the diurnal patterns of foraging activities in combination with a spatial axis (defined here in terms of microclimate and insolation) nevertheless showed a good separation of flower visits for the different nectarivores. Hummingbirds visited flowers in zones where the reward was highest, while insects foraged to minimise their energetic costs; each of these factors could in turn be related to microclimatic considerations. A comprehensive scheme of resource utilisation could therefore be extracted from the field observations and interpreted in these terms. The limited area of niche overlap thus revealed corresponded closely with the situations where direct interference competition was observed, between hummingbird species or between bees and aggressive ants.