Evolution of the Monotremes: Phylogenetic Relationship to Marsupials and Eutherians, and Estimation of Divergence Dates Based on α-Lactalbumin Amino Acid Sequences

The amino acid sequences of the -lactalbumins of the echidna, Tachyglossus aculeatus, and the platypus, Ornithorhynchus anatinus, were compared with each other and with those of 13 eutherian and 3 marsupial species. Phylogenetic parsimony analyses, in which selected mammalian lysozymes were used as outgroups, yielded trees whose consensus indicated that the two monotremes are sister taxa to marsupials and eutherians and that the latter two clades are each other's closest relatives. The data do not support the notion of a Marsupionta (monotreme–marsupial) clade. Pairwise comparison between the -lactalbumins yielded maximum-likelihood distances from which divergence dates were estimated on the basis of three calibration points. The distance data support the view that the echidna and platypus lineages diverged from their last common ancestor at least 50 to 57 Ma (million years ago) and that monotremes diverged from marsupials and eutherian mammals about 163 to 186 Ma.     

Comparative NMR studies of diffusional water permeability of red blood cells from different species: XVIII platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) and saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus)

As part of a programme of comparative measurements of P _d (diffusional water permeability) the RBCs (red blood cells) from an aquatic monotreme, platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus), and an aquatic reptile, saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) were studied. The mean diameter of platypus RBCs was estimated by light microscopy and found to be ～6.3 μm. P _d was measured by using an Mn²⁺‐doping 1H NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) technique. The P _d (cm/s) values were relatively low: ～2.1×10^?3 at 25°C, 2.5×10^?3 at 30°C, 3.4×10^?3 at 37°C and 4.5 at 42°C for the platypus RBCs and ～2.8×10^?3 at 25°C, 3.2×10^?3 at 30°C, 4.5×10^?3 at 37°C and 5.7×10^?3 at 42°C for the crocodile RBCs. In parallel with the low water permeability, the E _a,d (activation energy of water diffusion) was relatively high, ～35 kJ/mol. These results suggest that “conventional” WCPs (water channel proteins), or AQPs (aquaporins), are probably absent from the plasma membranes of RBCs from both the platypus and the saltwater crocodile.     

Largest vertebrate vomeronasal type 1 receptor gene repertoire in the semiaquatic platypus

Vertebrate vomeronasal chemoreception plays important roles in many aspects of an organism's daily life, such as mating, territoriality, and foraging. Vomeronasal type 1 receptors (V1Rs) and vomeronasal type 2 receptors (V2Rs), 2 large families of G protein-coupled receptors, serve as vomeronasal receptors to bind to various pheromones and odorants. Contrary to the previous observations of reduced olfaction in aquatic and semiaquatic mammals, we here report the surprising finding that the platypus, a semiaquatic monotreme, has the largest V1R repertoire and nearly largest combined repertoire of V1Rs and V2Rs of all vertebrates surveyed, with 270 intact genes and 579 pseudogenes in the V1R family and 15 intact genes, 55 potentially intact genes, and 57 pseudogenes in the V2R family. Phylogenetic analysis shows a remarkable expansion of the V1R repertoire and a moderate expansion of the V2R repertoire in platypus since the separation of monotremes from placentals and marsupials. Our results challenge the view that olfaction is unimportant to aquatic mammals and call for further study into the role of vomeronasal reception in platypus physiology and behavior.     

Early response of the platypus to climate warming

Combining a climatic envelope modelling technique with more than two centuries (1800–2009) of distribution records has revealed the effects of a changing climate on the egg‐laying monotreme, the platypus, Ornithorhynchus anatinus. We show that the main factor associated with platypus occurrence switched from aquatic habitat availability (estimated by rainfall) to thermal tolerances (estimated by annual maximum temperature) in the 1960s. This correlates directly with the change in the annual maximum temperature anomaly from cooler to warmer conditions in southeastern Australia. Modelling of platypus habitat under emission scenarios (A1B, A2, B1 and B2) revealed large decreases (>30%) in thermally suitable habitat by 2070. This reduction, compounded by increasing demands for water for agriculture and potable use, suggests that there is real cause for concern over the future status of this species, and highlights the need for restoration of thermal refugia within the platypus’ modelled range.     

Transitional forms between the three domains of life and evolutionary implications

The question as to the origin and relationship between the three domains of life is lodged in a phylogenetic impasse. The dominant paradigm is to see the three domains as separated. However, the recently characterized bacterial species have suggested continuity between the three domains. Here, we review the evidence in support of this hypothesis and evaluate the implications for and against the models of the origin of the three domains of life. The existence of intermediate steps between the three domains discards the need for fusion to explain eukaryogenesis and suggests that the last universal common ancestor was complex. We propose a scenario in which the ancestor of the current bacterial Planctomycetes, Verrucomicrobiae and Chlamydiae superphylum was related to the last archaeal and eukaryotic common ancestor, thus providing a way out of the phylogenetic impasse.     

Urban stormwater runoff limits distribution of platypus

The platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus), like many other stream‐dependent species, is reportedly sensitive to catchment urbanization. However, the primary mechanism limiting its distribution in urban environments has not been identified. We created species distribution models for three platypus demographic classes: adult females (which are exclusively responsible for raising young), adult males (which are more mobile than females), and first‐year juveniles. Using live‐trapping data collected in Melbourne, Australia, we tested whether distributions of the three demographic classes were better predicted by catchment urban density (total imperviousness), by urban stormwater runoff (catchment attenuated imperviousness), or by stream size (catchment area). Two variants of each predictor variable were developed, one that accounted for platypus mobility, and one that did not. Female distribution was most plausibly predicted by stormwater runoff (accounting for mobility), with a steep decline in reporting rate from 0 to 10% attenuated imperviousness. Male distribution was equally plausibly predicted by stormwater runoff and urban density (both accounting for mobility), with a less steep and more uncertain decline with imperviousness than females. Juvenile distribution was most plausibly predicted by stream size (accounting for mobility), but both stormwater runoff and urban density (accounting for mobility) were nearly equally plausible predictors. The superior performance of models that accounted for mobility underscores the importance of accounting for this in species distribution models of highly mobile species. Platypus populations in urban areas are likely to be affected adversely by urban stormwater runoff conveyed by conventional drainage systems, with adult females more limited by runoff‐related impacts than adult males or juveniles. Urban platypus conservation efforts have generally focused on restoring riparian and in‐stream habitats on a local scale. This is unlikely to protect platypus from adverse impacts of urban stormwater runoff, which is most effectively managed at the catchment scale.     

Monotreme ossification sequences and the riddle of mammalian skeletal development

The developmental differences between marsupials, placentals, and monotremes are thought to be reflected in differing patterns of postcranial development and diversity. However, developmental polarities remain obscured by the rarity of monotreme data. Here, I present the first postcranial ossification sequences of the monotreme echidna and platypus, and compare these with published data from other mammals and amniotes. Strikingly, monotreme stylopodia (humerus, femur) ossify after the more distal zeugopodia (radius/ulna, tibia/fibula), resembling only the European mole among all amniotes assessed. European moles also share extreme humeral adaptations to rotation digging and/or swimming with monotremes, suggesting a causal relationship between adaptation and ossification heterochrony. Late femoral ossification with respect to tibia/fibula in monotremes and moles points toward developmental integration of the serially homologous fore- and hindlimb bones. Monotreme cervical ribs and coracoids ossify later than in most amniotes but are similarly timed as homologous ossifications in therians, where they are lost as independent bones. This loss may have been facilitated by a developmental delay of coracoids and cervical ribs at the base of mammals. The monotreme sequence, although highly derived, resembles placentals more than marsupials. Thus, marsupial postcranial development, and potentially related diversity constraints, may not represent the ancestral mammalian condition.     

北京地区宽鳍鱲的早期发育

作者对分布于北京市怀柔区怀九河的宽鳍鱲(Zacco platypus)的胚胎发育及仔鱼前期发育进行了研究,过程中采用人工干法授精获取受精卵, 观察并描述了宽鳍鱲早期发育过程及其特点。结果显示, 宽鳍鱲成熟卵呈圆球状, 平均卵径1.04 mm, 为沉性卵。在平均23.0℃(17.1-28.0℃)水温条件下, 从受精卵到孵化经历了73h1min, 积温为1682.3 度时; 孵化后6.5d 进入弯曲期仔鱼。仔鱼前期发育速度与出膜前相比明显减慢;弯曲期仔鱼出现大量死亡可能与有限的人工培育条件、混合营养期能量供给不足等原因有关。通过比较发现, 宽鳍鱲与鲤科中其他21 个种相比, 早期发育时间比其中7 个种均长。宽鳍鱲早期发育时间比同域分布、相同发育水温的马口鱼略长, 明显长于同属的纵纹鱲的发育时间。宽鳍鱲南、北方种群仔鱼发育速度存在差异, 北方种群出膜前发育速度比南方种群快, 但出膜后发育速度减慢。