Thyme travels: 15N isoscapes of Thymus vulgaris L. invasion in lightly grazed pastoral communities

Alterations to ecosystem nitrogen (N) cycling by introduced plant species may increase the invasibility of habitat providing a positive feedback for the introduced species to become invasive. Spatial patterns of foliar and soil δ¹⁵N ratios reflect variation in rates and process of N‐cycling across invaded landscapes and provide insight into N‐source uptake and utilization strategies of invasive plant species. To evaluate invasion‐associated changes in soil and foliar δ¹⁵N at different scales: regional (among different sites), local (between north‐ and south‐facing aspect at the same site), and microsite (within populations in the same community), we measured foliar and soil δ¹⁵ N, animal faeces cover (as a proxy for grazing intensity) and N₂‐fixing species cover from inside to outside Thymus vulgaris L. (thyme)‐invaded lightly grazed pastoral communities in Central Otago, southern South Island, New Zealand. Mean thyme foliar δ¹⁵N were near‐zero across the invaded landscape, and did not change across the advancing edge of invasion or with aspect. There was no evidence that associations with N₂‐fixing species provide a potential N source. Soil δ¹⁵N was lower inside of thyme compared to at the edge or outside of thyme and was varied between aspects at some sites. Animal faeces cover as a proxy for grazing intensity explained only 23% of this observed variation of soil δ¹⁵N. Thyme invasion may result in lowered soil δ¹⁵N reflecting alterations to N dynamics. Associated invasion‐related impacts of animal grazing may also impact soil δ¹⁵N. Further studies are required to distinguish the underlying mechanism responsible for the observed patterns of foliar and soil δ¹⁵N values across thyme‐invaded Central Otago landscapes.     

Sucrose application,soil microbial respiration and evolved carbon dioxide isotope enrichment under contrasting land uses

Heterotrophic decomposition of organic matter dictates that substrate supply rate, including energy and nutrients, can limit soil microbial activity. In New Zealand, soils are naturally deficient in nitrogen and phosphorus. Fertiliser application is a part of pastoral agriculture, the countrys most widespread land use. We postulated that organic soils under grazed pasture and pristine forest would be at the extremes of substrate quality and supply rate, and thus potential microbial response to food opportunities. Soil microbial responses to the addition of fresh energy (sucrose) were determined by laboratory experiments with root-free samples and intact cores including roots. Responses were quantified by respiration and respired carbon (C) isotope (¹³C) enrichment measurements. A supra-trace sucrose dose (0.002 mol kg^–1 (soil)) caused the forest soils microbial respiration rate to nearly double within 2 h. The peak response took 20 h, and saturation occurred beyond a sucrose dose of 0.05 mol kg^–1 (soil). Intact soil cores from the forest had similar respiration rates and responses. For root-free soil samples from the grazed pasture, respiration response to sucrose was nearly immediate, dose dependent, and there was up to a 9-fold increase in the rate. Intact cores from the pasture had much higher respiration rates, but a similar response to sucrose. For both soils, the similarity of sucrose application effects on respiration and relative ¹³C enrichment of the respired carbon was striking.     

Restoration of Species Richness in Abandoned Mediterranean Grasslands: Seeds in Cattle Dung

Abstract Endozoochory has proven to be a highly effective mechanism in the dispersal of viable seeds in Mediterranean grasslands. We studied the effect of cattle dung application on species richness, particularly on the reintroduction of species lost after abandonment. Sown and control plots were monitored for 3 years after dung sowing. We found a significant increase in small‐scale richness, which may be attributed to the treatment, with the inclusion of species detected in the dung and in the grazed pasture. The differences in richness and floristic composition diminished over time. This experiment proves the potential utility of this treatment for the restoration of species richness in abandoned pastures, although supplementary steps are necessary, including further sowing and/or shrub cutting in subsequent years.     

放牧对鄂尔多斯高原油蒿草场生物量及植被-土壤碳密度的影响

以围封保护和自由放牧油蒿草场为研究对象,通过野外调查与室内分析,研究了围封和放牧条件下沙地草场生物量和植被-土壤碳密度。结果表明:(1)自由放牧使油蒿群落中植物种类增加,但降低了植物群落盖度。自由放牧不仅导致油蒿草场地上、地下总生物量降低,也使得油蒿地上、地下生物量占群落地上、地下总生物量的比例减小。生长季自由放牧样地凋落物生物量显著大于围封保护样地(P0.05);(2)围封保护样地植被碳密度大于自由放牧样地,土壤碳密度却小于自由放牧样地,但两个样地间差异不显著(P0.05);(3)油蒿草场90%以上的碳储存于土壤中,围封保护样地和自由放牧样地油蒿草场土壤碳密度占植被-土壤系统碳密度的91%、93%;(4)围封保护油蒿草场碳密度为2.29 kg/m2,自由放牧油蒿草场碳密度为2.68 kg/m2,两个样地间差异不显著,自由放牧对油蒿草场碳密度影响不大。     

Die Aussagekraft subfossiler Moos-Synusien bei der Rekonstruktion eines keltischen Lebensraumes — Das Beispiel des Fürstengrabhügels Magdalenenberg bei Villingen

Bei den jüngsten Ausgrabungen am hallstattzeitlichen Fürstengrabhügel Magdalenenberg bei Villingen wurden vorzüglich erhaltene und autochthone Pflanzenreste geborgen, darunter 30 Arten von Bryophyten. Diese ließen sich folgenden rezenten ökologischsoziologischen Gruppen zuordnen: Halbtrockenrasen-Arten, Arten verdichteter Erdblößen, Waldboden-Bewohner, Arten frischer bis nasser Standorte, Euryöke. Durch aktualistischen Vergleich der Moos-Synusien mit heutigen Pflanzengesellschaften im gleichen Naturraum ließ sich entschlüsseln, daß das Gelände damals mit extensiv beweideten Halbtrockenrasen bewachsen war; die Tätigkeit der Hügelbauer spiegelt sich in einer Überlagerung mit “Ruderalmoosen” wider. Durch Samenpflanzen-Funde konnte die Rekonstruktion weiter präzisiert und abgesichert werden.     

Nitrogen cycling in low input legume-based agriculture,with emphasis on legume/grass pastures

Low input legume-based agriculture exists in a continuum between subsistence farming and intensive arable and pastoral systems. This review covers this range, but with most emphasis on temperate legume/grass pastures under grazing by livestock. Key determinants of nitrogen (N) flows in grazed legume/grass pastures are: inputs of N from symbiotic N₂ fixation which are constrained through self-regulation via grass/legume interactions; large quantities of N cycling through grazing animals with localised return in excreta; low direct conversion of pasture N into produce (typically 5–20%) but with N recycling under intensive grazing the farm efficiency of product N: fixed N can be up to 50%; and regulation of N flows by mineralisation/immobilisation reactions. Pastoral systems reliant solely on fixed N are capable of moderate-high production with modest N losses e.g. average denitrification and leaching losses from grazed pastures of 6 and 23 kg N ha^–1 yr^–1. Methods for improving efficiency of N cycling in legume-based cropping and legume/grass pasture systems are discussed. In legume/arable rotations, the utilisation of fixed N by crops is influenced greatly by the timing of management practices for synchrony of N supply via mineralisation and crop N uptake. In legume/grass pastures, the spatial return of excreta and the uptake of excreta N by pastures can potentially be improved through dietary manipulation and management strategies. Plant species selection and plant constituent modification also offer the potential to increase N efficiency through greater conversion into animal produce, improved N uptake from soil and manipulation of mineralisation/immobilisation/nitrification reactions.     

Nitrogen inputs and losses from New Zealand dairy farmlets, as affected by nitrogen fertilizer application: year one

Inputs and losses of nitrogen (N) were determined in dairy cow farmlets receiving 0, 225 or 360 kg N ha^-1 (in split applications as urea) in the first year of a large grazing experiment near Hamilton, New Zealand. Cows grazed perennial ryegrass/white clover pastures all year round on a free-draining soil. N₂ fixation was estimated (using ¹⁵N dilution) to be 212, 165 and 74 kg N ha^-1 yr^-1 in the 0, 225 and 360 N treatments, respectively. The intermediate N rate had little effect on clover growth during spring but favoured more total pasture cover in summer and autumn, thereby reducing overgrazing and resulting in 140% more clover growth during the latter period.Removal of N in milk was 76,89 and 92 kg N ha^-1 in the 0, 225 and 360 N treatments, respectively. Denitrification losses were low (7–14 kg N ha^-1 yr^-1), increased with N application, and occurred predominantly during winter. Ammonia volatilization was estimated by micrometeorological mass balance at 15, 45 and 63 kg N ha^-1 yr^-1 in the 0, 225 and 360 N treatments, respectively. Most of the increase in ammonia loss was attributed to direct loss after application of the urea fertilizer.Leaching of nitrate was estimated (using ceramic cup samplers at 1 m soil depth, in conjunction with lysimeters) to be 13, 18 and 31 kg N ha^-1 yr^-1 in a year of relatively low rainfall (990 mm yr^-1) and drainage (170–210 mm yr^-1). Drainage was lower in the N fertilized treatments and this was attributed to enhanced evapotranspiration associated with increased grass growth.Nitrate-N concentrations in leachates increased gradually over time to 30 mg L^-1 in the 360 N treatment whereas there was little temporal variation evident in the 0 (mean 6.4 mg L^-1) and 225 (mean 10.1 mg L^-1) N treatments. Thus, the 360 N treatment had a major effect by greatly reducing N₂ fixation and increasing N losses, whereas the 225 N treatment had little effect on N₂ fixation or on nitrate leaching. However, these results refer to the first year of the experiment and further measurements over time will determine the longer-term effects of these treatments on N inputs, transformations and losses.     

Patterns of denitrification loss from grazed grassland: Effects of N fertilizer inputs at different sites

Factors influencing the seasonal and daily variation in denitrification rates in grazed swards were examined at 5 experimental sites in England with wide ranging environmental/geographic conditions. There was a wide range of fertilizer inputs at each site. Rates of denitrification were estimated by a coring and field incubation technique using acetylene to inhibit the reduction of N₂O to N₂. Major features of the detailed results from two of the sites were: (i) the large ranges in rates of loss, (ii) the relatively low contributions to total annual loss during autumn and winter, (iii) the apparent association of high rates of loss with fertilizer additions made when the soil was wet or immediately preceding a rainfall event, and (iv) significant losses from soil at 10–30 cm in the profile. Multiple quadratic regression analysis of the effects of soil NO₃ ^--N, soil temperature and water was used to explain variability in rates of loss. When separate regressions were fitted within each site × year × season × fertilizer level subset, 51% of the variation in loss was explained on a poorly drained fine loam/silt but only 38% on a freely drained loam.     

Threatened inland sand vegetation in the temperate zone under different types of abiotic and biotic disturbances during a ten-year period

In sandy grassland vegetation of Central Europe, extensive grazing is often a management tool to maintain and improve nature conservation value. As part of a long-term field experiment lasting 10 years we investigated the effects of sheep grazing as a type of moderate disturbance. As “experiments by nature” happened in this time period we were also able to study severe biotic (rabbit grazing) and abiotic (drought) disturbances, examining the recovery and resilience of the system after these severe disturbances.Within a six-fold replicated randomised split-plot design, 25-m² plots of Armerio-Festucetum trachyphyllae vegetation were studied from 2000 to 2009 in the northern upper Rhine valley (Germany). We analysed sheep-grazed and non-grazed plots (both with very low rabbit impact until the first half of 2005). In 2005 we established an additional plot type without rabbit and sheep grazing. Severe rabbit impact was studied in detail from 2006 to 2008 concerning flower resources, seed production, endozoochorous seed dispersal and phytomass extraction. Data were analysed by ordination methods and mixed linear models.In times of low rabbit densities moderate disturbance by sheep grazing maintained species diversity. Severe drought in 2003 resulted in a marked decrease of species numbers, but the system recovered already in 2004. The subsequently analysed “high rabbit impact” resulted in decreases of species numbers, cover of bryophytes, flower quantities and seed content in faeces. Species numbers also declined on plots without rabbit grazing, but for different reasons. Shifts in phenological phases due to rabbit grazing were not observed, but the sum of flowers and number of flowering species decreased. After the decline of the rabbit population, species numbers slightly increased in 2009. Non-grazed plots showed an increase of litter.Despite severe disturbances by rabbits or drought, the community structure was relatively stable, especially in case of non-ruderalised plots and showed only slight changes. We developed a conceptual model, showing the high potential of recovery and resilience even in the case of severe disturbances.     

An assessment of the contribution of net mineralization to N cycling in grass swards using a field incubation method

Measurements of net mineralization using a field incubation method were made over a full growing season (180 d). Soil cores, taken from cut swards which for many years had been previously grazed by cattle, were placed in jars in the field for successive incubation periods of 14 d. Acetylene was added to the incubation jars to inhibit nitrification in the soil cores and thereby prevent losses of N through denitrification. Net mineralization over 180 d amounted to 415, 321 and 310 kg N ha^–1 under grass/clover, unfertilized grass and grass receiving 420 kg N ha^–1 y^–1, respectively. At the start of the growing season, an index of potentially mineralizable N in the soil was estimated by a chemical extraction method, but this index was <50% of the estimates obtained by field incubation. The amount of N in herbage harvested regularly from the swards also under-estimated the supply of N from the soil, with apparent recoveries of 53, 82 and 74% and total yields of N of 240, 263 and 538 (kg N ha^–1) from grass/clover, unfertilized grass and fertilized grass, respectively. Mineralization rates varied significantly with seasonal soil temperature fluctuations, but the incubation method was apparently less sensitive in relation to changes in soil water content. Rates of N-turnover (as % of total soil N) were highest under grass/clover (9%), but similar under fertilized and unfertilized grass swards (approximately 5%).