Emerging mechanisms of the behavioral effects of steroids

Within two models of steroid-modulated behavior, sodium appetite and sexual receptivity, novel mechanisms of steroid action have emerged. These include interactions between different types of steroid receptors, plasticity of synapses, activation of unliganded steroid receptors, and rapid effects of steroids. These mechanisms highlight the diversity of steroid action in the central nervous system.     

Estradiol pulses induce progestin receptors selectively in substance P-immunoreactive neurons in the ventrolateral hypothalamus of female guinea pigs

Low doses of estradiol, administered as pulses, are as effective as higher doses for priming ovariectomized (OVX) guinea pigs to display progesterone-facilitated lordosis. High doses of estradiol, administered by constant-release implants, induce progestin receptors in many substance P-immunoreactive (SP-IR) neurons in the ventrolateral hypothalamus (VLH), a site at which estradiol primes OVX guinea pigs to respond behaviorally to progesterone. To test the hypothesis that behaviorally effective estradiol pulses induce progestin receptors selectively in substance P-containing neurons in the VLH, OVX females received estradiol implants 1 week prior to perfusion, or two pulses of estradiol- 17β, injected 39 and 11 h before perfusion. Colchicine was administered intracerebroventricularly prior to perfusion. No significant differences were observed in the total number of progestin receptor-immunoreactive (PR-IR) or substance P-immunoreactive cells in the VLH and VLH/ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH), respectively, of females receiving the two estradiol treatments. However, the percentage of PR-IR cells in the VLH also immunoreactive for SP was significantly higher in the estradiol pulse-treated (53%), than in the estradiol capsule-implanted animals (36%). These data suggest that behaviorally effective estradiol pulses induce progestin receptors selectively in substance P-containing neurons in the VLH and are consistent with the hypothesis that substance P is involved in progesterone-facilitated lordosis in guinea pigs.     

Ovarian steroids and serotonin neural function

The serotonin neural system originates from ten nuclei in the mid- and hindbrain regions. The cells of the rostral nuclei project to almost every area of the forebrain, including the hypothalamus, limbic regions, basal ganglia, thalamic nuclei, and cortex. The caudal nuclei project to the spinal cord and interact with numerous autonomic and sensory systems. This article reviews much of the available literature from basic research and relevant clinical research that indicates that ovarian steroid hormones, estrogens and progestins, affect the function of the serotonin neural system. Experimental results in nonhuman primates from this laboratory are contrasted with studies in rodents and humans. The sites of action of ovarian hormones on the serotonin neural system include effects within serotonin neurons as well as effects on serotonin afferent neurons and serotonin target neurons. Therefore, information on estrogen and progestin receptor-containing neurons was synthesized with information on serotonin afferent and efferent circuits. The ability of estrogens and progestins to alter the function of the serotonin neural system at various levels provides a cellular mechanism whereby ovarian hormones can impact mood, cognition, pain, and numerous other autonomic functions.     

黄体酮对成年斑马鱼下丘脑-垂体-性腺轴相关基因转录表达的干扰效应

黄体酮(P4)是一种类固醇激素。为了探究P4的内分泌干扰效应, 选择成年斑马鱼(Danio rerio)作为受试生物, 研究了P4对斑马鱼下丘脑-垂体-性腺轴(HPG轴)相关基因转录表达影响。成年斑马鱼在不同浓度P4(2、11和16 ng•L–1)下处理21 d。结果显示: 暴露于高浓度组的P4能够抑制雌鱼大脑中促性腺激素释放激素2(gnrh2)、促性腺激素释放激素3(gnrh3), 卵泡刺激素(fshb)、雌激素受体1(esr1)基因的转录表达; 然而诱导了雄鱼大脑中fshb、黄体生成素(lhb)、雄激素受体(ar)基因的转录表达, 这些转录变化暗示了P4对成年斑马鱼有潜在的弱雄激素效应。此外, P4暴露对雌鱼卵巢和雄鱼精巢类固醇合成途径中固醇激素合成急性调节蛋白(star)、细胞色素p450介导侧链裂解酶(cyp11a1)、17α羟化酶(cyp17)、卵巢细胞色素P450芳香化酶(cyp19a1a)、11β羟化酶(cyp11b)、羟基类固醇3β脱氢酶(hsd3b)、羟基类固醇20β脱氢酶(hsd20b)、羟基类固醇17β脱氢酶3(hsd17b3)、羟基类固醇11β脱氢酶2(hsd11b2)以及受体信号途径中孕激素受体(pgr)、esr1、ar基因的转录表达没有显著影响。可见, 在P4暴露下, 斑马鱼大脑比性腺更加敏感。总而言之, P4能够改变斑马鱼大脑中HPG轴相关基因的转录表达水平, 进而对斑马鱼的内分泌系统具有潜在的危险。     

Dose determination and efficacy of remotely delivered norgestomet implants on contraception of white-tailed deer

Management of overabundant wildlife populations using contraceptives is being considered with increasing frequency in many localities. A wide array of effective contraceptives is needed to meet a variety of management objectives. Therefore, we evaluated the synthetic progestin norgestomet for its efficacy and its minimum effective dose in free-ranging white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). We evaluated two doses of norgestomet implants (14 and 42 mg) at a site in southern Connecticut during 1992–1995. Four doses (14, 21, 28, 42 mg) of norgestomet implants were tested at a site in northern Indiana during 1993–1996. The effectiveness of norgestomet implants in preventing pregnancy was similar for the 42 mg (92%), 28 mg (100%), and 21 mg (100%) doses. There was a significant decline in efficacy using the 14 mg (48%) dose. It appears that 21 mg is approximately the lowest dose that consistently prevents reproduction in adult white-tailed deer of various sizes and ages. Norgestomet implants show promise as a highly effective contraceptive agent that is safe to treated animals and secondary consumers and simple to deliver remotely. Zoo Biol 16:31–37, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Progestin functions in vertebrate gametes mediated by membrane progestin receptors (mPRs): Identification of mPRα on human sperm and its association with sperm motility

Most of the studies on the putative membrane progestin receptor (mPR) α and β subtypes that have been published in the 5 years since their discovery have supported the original hypothesis that they function as specific membrane receptors through which progestins induce rapid, nongenomic responses in target cells. Recent evidence that mPRα and mPRβ have important roles in the regulation of oocyte meiotic maturation and sperm motility in both fish and mammals is reviewed. Although rapid, cell surface-initiated progestin actions on sperm to induce hyperactive motility have been demonstrated in several mammalian models, the identity of the membrane progestin receptor mediating this effect remains unclear. We demonstrate here that mPRα mRNA is expressed in human sperm by RT-PCR and that the mPRα protein is localized to the sperm membranes by Western blot analysis. Immunocytochemical staining of whole non-permeabilized human sperm confirmed the mPRα protein is expressed in the plasma membrane, and showed it is localized to the sperm midpiece, indicating a likely role of mPRα in progestin regulation of sperm motility. Moreover, the abundance of the mPRα protein on sperm plasma membranes from human donors that displayed low motility was significantly reduced compared to that on normal motile sperm. Finally, progestin treatment of sperm membranes caused activation of G-proteins. These results suggest that, similar to its proposed function in fishes, mPRα is an intermediary in progestin stimulation of sperm motility in humans by a mechanism involving G-protein activation.     

Progestin receptors in substance P-immunoreactive neurons in the hypothalamus of male guinea pigs after behaviorally effective estradiol pulse treatment

Pulsatile administration of estradiol effectively primes orchidectomized (ORCH) male guinea pigs to display progesterone-facilitated lordosis. In contrast, a single injection of estradiol benzoate (EB) is not behaviorally effective. In ovariectomized female guinea pigs, estradiol pulses induce progestin receptors selectively in substance P neurons in the ventrolateral hypothalamus (VLH), a site at which estradiol primes females to respond behaviorally to progesterone. To test the hypothesis that behaviorally effective estradiol pulses induce progestin receptors selectively in substance P neurons in the VLH in males, ORCH animals received a single injection of EB 40 h before, or two pulses of estradiol-17β, 39 and 11 h before perfusion. Colchicine was administered intracerebroventricularly prior to perfusion. The only difference found between the two estradiol treatment groups was a higher number of progestin receptorimmunoreactive (PR-IR) cells in the rostral VLH of estradiol pulse-treated males. There were no significant differences in the number of PR-IR cells in the mid- or caudal VLH, nor in the number of substance P-immunoreactive (SP-IR) neurons in the VLH/ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) of animals receiving the two estradiol treatments. Furthermore, the percentage of PR-IR cells in the VLH also immunoreactive for SP did not differ between the estradiol pulse- (22%–25%) and the EB-injected animals (22%–32%). These data do not support the hypothesis that administration of behaviorally effective estradiol pulses, as compared to behaviorally ineffective EB injections, induce progestin receptors selectively in substance P neurons in the VLH of male guinea pigs.     

The role of the maturation-inducing steroid, 17,20β-dihydroxypregn-4-en-3-one, in male fishes: a review

The major progestin in teleosts is not progesterone, as in tetrapods, but 17,20β-dihydroxypregn-4-en-3-one (17,20β-P) or, in certain species, 17,20β,21-trihydroxy-pregn-4-en-3-one (17,20β,21-P). Several functions for 17,20β-P and 17,20β,21-P have been proposed (and in some cases proved). These include induction of oocyte final maturation and spermiation (milt production), enhancement of sperm motility (by alteration of the pH and fluidity of the seminal fluid) and acting as a pheromone in male cyprinids. Another important function, initiation of meiosis (the first step in both spermatogenesis and oogenesis), has only very recently been proposed. This is a process that takes place at puberty in all fishes and once a year in repeat spawners. The present review critically examines the evidence to support the proposed functions of 17,20β-P in males, including listing of the evidence for the presence of 17,20β-P in the blood plasma of male fishes and discussion of why, in many species, it appears to be absent (or present at low and, in some cases, unvarying concentrations); consideration of the evidence, obtained mainly from in vitro studies, for this steroid being predominantly produced by the testis, for its production being under the control of luteinizing hormone (gonadotrophin II) and, at least in salmonids, for two cell types (Leydig cells and sperm cells) being involved in its synthesis; discussion of the factors involved in the regulation of the switch from androgen to 17,20β-P production that seems to occur in many species just at the time of spermiation; discussion of the effects of in vivo injection and application of 17,20β-P (and closely related compounds) in males; a listing of previously published evidence that supports the proposed new function of 17,20β-P as an initiator of meiosis; finally, discussion of the evidence for environmental endocrine disruption by progestins in fishes.