Wild Animal Training: A Glance at Circuses and Hediger's Viewpoint

Historically, zoos have shared common features with circuses despite recent animosity toward them: Exhibition of wild animals in captivity. Experienced circus professionals can provide insight into the nature of wild animals from their sensitivity to man-made environmental components, potentially dangerous human errors, to animal escapes. These are told in numerous behind-the-scenes episodes. Zoos and circuses also have common needs such as improved animal husbandry and breeding. Moreover, both institutions face the public's naivete about animal life, and accusation about alleged cruelty to animals, often focusing on animal training. Professor Heini Hediger explained animal training from a scientific viewpoint. We can learn from his wisdom, for instance, the theoretical basis on training. Although traditional animal training has received adverse responses in recent years, accomplishments by trainers from the earlier era must be given a proper historical recognition.     

Conflict and postconflict behaviour in captive black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Rhinopithecus bieti</Emphasis>)

Black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) have almost never been the subject of any behavioural observations in captivity. This study was aimed at providing preliminary information about agonistic and reconciliation behaviour in a group kept at the Kunming Institute of Zoology in China. Established procedures were used for this investigation (i.e., the postconflict/matched-control method and the time-rule method). Intra-group aggression rates were quite low. Postconflict affiliation as well as selective attraction of former opponents to each other following conflicts was demonstrated. Former opponents contacted each other earlier in postconflict periods than in matched-control periods. The average conciliatory tendency of all focal individuals combined was 54.5%. After an agonistic interaction, the first affiliative contact between former aggressors usually took place within the first minute. The behaviours most often shown as first affiliations after a conflict were body contact, mount, touch, and hold-lumbar, of which the latter is an explicit reconciliatory gesture. Furthermore, the adult male intervened non-aggressively in 84% of all conflicts (n=25) among the adult females. Overall, the patterns of aggression and reconciliation observed in R. bieti bear many of the traits that characterise tolerant primate species.     

Temporal dynamics of oocyte development, plasma sex steroids and somatic energy reserves during seasonal ovarian maturation in captive Murray cod Maccullochella peelii peelii

The temporal dynamics of oocyte growth, plasma sex steroids and somatic energy stores were examined during a 12 month ovarian maturation cycle in captive Murray cod Maccullochella peelii peelii under simulated natural photothermal conditions. Ovarian function was found to be relatively uninhibited in captivity, with the exception that post-vitellogenic follicles failed to undergo final maturation, resulting in widespread pre-ovulatory atresia. Seasonal patterns of oocyte growth were characterised by cortical alveoli accumulation in March, deposition of lipids in April, and vitellogenesis between May and September. Two distinct batches of vitellogenic oocytes were found in Murray cod ovaries, indicating a capacity for multiple spawns. Plasma profiles of 17β-oestradiol and testosterone were both highly variable during the maturation period suggesting that multiple roles exist for these steroids during different stages of oocyte growth. Condition factor, liver size and visceral fat stores were all found to increase prior to, or during the peak phase of vitellogenic growth. Murray cod appear to strategically utilise episodes of high feeding activity to accrue energy reserves early in the reproductive cycle prior to its deployment during periods of rapid ovarian growth.     

Phylogenetic characterization and in situ detection of bacterial communities associated with seahorses (Hippocampus guttulatus) in captivity

Although there are several studies describing bacteria associated with marine fish, the bacterial composition associated with seahorses has not been extensively investigated since these studies have been restricted to the identification of bacterial pathogens. In this study, the phylogenetic affiliation of seahorse-associated bacteria was assessed by 16S rRNA gene sequencing of cloned DNA fragments. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) was used to confirm the presence of the predominant groups indicated by 16S rRNA analysis. Both methods revealed that Vibrionaceae was the dominant population in Artemia sp. (live prey) and intestinal content of the seahorses, while Rhodobacteraceae was dominant in water samples from the aquaculture system and cutaneous mucus of the seahorses. To our knowledge, this is the first time that bacterial communities associated with healthy seahorses in captivity have been described.     

圈养大熊猫母兽成功哺育双胞胎成活初探

圈养大熊猫产下双胞胎后,母兽一般难以同时哺育二仔。2003年,圈养大熊猫母兽“梅梅”同时哺育双胞胎成活,本文对该首例哺育双胞胎成活的原因进行了初步分析,认为满足母兽的营养需求、适宜的育幼环境及人工护理,特别是“梅梅”的母性好、有丰富的育幼经验、食欲强、泌乳充足等在同时哺育双胞胎成活中起着重要作用,同时对“梅梅”哺育的双胞胎与其哺育的另两只单胎幼仔的体重增长情况进行了比较,为圈养大熊猫成功哺育双胞胎,增加幼仔成活率,提供了有关借鉴信息和资料。     

笼养东北虎行为的时间分配

1998 年4 月至2001 年3 月, 采用瞬时扫描取样法和全事件取样法对哈尔滨动物园的4 只笼养东北虎的活动规律进行了研究。结果表明, 笼养东北虎在全年的昼夜行为时间分配表现为睡眠所占比值最多; 其次是卧息和活动; 摄食和其它行为(包括饮水、排尿、排粪、修饰、嗅闻、嬉戏、站立、直立、发声等) 最少。在不同季节笼养东北虎的活动变化规律基本相似, 一昼夜的睡眠、运动和卧息均有两个高峰期, 但高峰期出现和持续的时间有所差异。睡眠的高峰期在10 : 00～14 : 00 和20 : 00 至次日06 : 00 , 活动的高峰期在05 : 00～10 : 00 和14 : 00～17 : 00 , 卧息的高峰期在05 : 00～10 : 00 和13 : 00～20 : 00 , 摄食仅在16 : 00～20 : 00 有一个高峰期。冬季(12～2 月) 与春(3～5 月) 、夏(6～8 月) 、秋季(9～11 月) 相比, 东北虎在白昼睡眠的时间显著减少,夜晚则显著增多。     

Guidelines for managing captive Iberian ibex herds for conservation purposes

Overexploitation, pollution, habitat loss or emerging diseases have led to a large number of species to extinction. This has made zoos and wildlife enclosures expand their goals beyond entertainment and fun; their participation in conservation and research programs is important for the recovery of multiple species. To ensure success, staff need to know the specific requirements of each species. In case of the Iberian ibex (Capra pyreanica), a wild ungulate endemic to the Iberian Peninsula, different sarcoptic mange outbreaks caused dramatic declines of some ibex populations, which led managers and researchers to explore strategies aimed at preventing and controlling this disease and to reduce its impact on ibex populations. Such management plans included the creation of stock reservoirs as an in-situ conservation measure. The objective of the stock reservoir El Toril, as a key part of a general management plan, is to keep in captivity (in range) a sex and age structured representation of the free-ranging population, with most of its genetic variability, destined for conservation programs. However, under captivity conditions with potential for high concentration of animals, direct contact and stress occur and the appearance, transmission, and severity of diseases could be favored. Therefore, it is necessary to establish health protocols in order to guarantee animal welfare. Spanish Animal Health laws establish specific requirements and preventive measures for controlling diseases in captive populations: sarcoptic mange, tuberculosis, brucellosis and bluetongue are notifiable diseases, and the staff of the reservoir must apply specific diagnostic methods to detect them. The management recommendations presented here may be very useful for other managers involved in the conservation of wild ruminants.     

笼养白腹锦鸡繁殖季节的时间分配

笼养白腹锦鸡繁殖季节的日常活动占用时间从静栖、游走、取食、理羽、繁殖、鸣叫、沙浴、饮水到攻击依次减少。直接或间接满足自身需要的行为占９６．１９％。一天中除静栖外,其它行为所占时间比例在中午较小,而在早晚较大。白腹锦鸡雄鸟的发性行为与求偶行为的关系为密切;雌鸟的产卵与饮水、沙浴行为的相互关系较大。活动时间分配可能是多种因素综合作用的结果。     

Remote sensing of physiological data: Impact of long term captivity on body temperature variation of the feral cat (Felis catus) in Australia,recorded via Thermochron iButtons

This study reports body temperature regulation (T_b) and circadian rhythms of undisturbed feral cats in their natural environment in Australia over a continuous period of three months. It furthermore compares these data with T_b data collected of feral cats, after a period of one year in captivity. In free-ranging, undisturbed feral cats, a distinct robust, regular circadian rhythm (strength of rhythm) (21–59.8%) with higher body temperature in the dark (active) phase (mean±STD: 39.2±0.27 °C) and significantly lower body temperature during the light (rest) phase (mean±STD: 38.1±0.47 °C, P<0.001) was found. The acrophase (time of the daily peak) of the three free-ranging cats investigated varied from 22:34 h (LG 2), 22:57 h (LG 1) to 23:17 h (LG 3). In the course of captivity, the cats’ circadian rhythms shifted from nocturnality to a diurnal tendency, with an acrophase ranging from 12:00 h (MtK 2), 12:23 h (MtK 1) to 16:25 h (MtK 3). This change in rhythmicity was accompanied by a significant decrease in robustness (1.7–5.2%) and mean body temperature levels (37.77±0.34 °C) as well as minima and maxima (36–39 °C versus 35.5–41.9 °C, free-ranging cats) of three captive cats, resulting in a significant shift towards a decrease in amplitude.     

Is a wild mammal kept and reared in captivity still a wild animal?

This study compared domestic guinea pigs (Cavia aperea f. porcellus; DGP) and two different populations of the wild cavy (Cavia aperea), its ancestor, to examine whether rearing of wild mammals in captivity affects their behavior and physiological stress responses. One population of wild cavies consisted of wild-trapped animals and their first laboratory-reared offspring (WGP-1). The animals of the other population were reared in captivity for about 30 generations (WGP-30). The spontaneous behavior of each of six groups of WGP-1 and WGP-30 and nine groups of DGP, each consisting of one adult male and two adult females, was analyzed quantitatively. Blood samples of the males were taken to determine cortisol, epinephrine, and norepinephrine concentrations. In addition, the exploratory behavior of 60-day-old male WGP-1, WGP-30, and DGP was investigated in an exploration apparatus. The domesticated animals displayed significantly less aggression, but significantly more sociopositive and male courtship behavior than their wild ancestors. In addition, DGP were much less attentive to their physical environment. Surprisingly, no behavioral difference was found between WGP-1 and WGP-30. Basal cortisol concentrations did not differ between wild and domestic guinea pigs. Catecholamine concentrations, however, as well as the challenge values of cortisol, were distinctly reduced in the DGP. WGP-1 and WGP-30 did not differ with respect to their endocrine stress responses. In the exploration apparatus both forms of wild cavies were much more explorative than the domestic animals. These data suggest that the long-term breeding and rearing of wild guinea pigs in captivity do not result in significant changes in behavior and hormonal stress responses. It appears to take much longer periods of time and artificial selection by humans to bring about characters of domestication in wild animals.