Enzymes for biosynthesis de novo and elongation of fatty acids in mycobacteria grown in host cells: is Mycobacterium leprae competent in fatty acid biosynthesis?

Fatty acid synthetase activity in extracts of Mycobacterium leprae was equivalent to 1.7 pmol malonyl-CoA incorporated into fatty acid min-1 (mg protein)-1. This activity--if representative of living M. leprae organisms--is insufficient to enable them to synthesize their lipid requirements rapidly enough to support growth. The major activity for scavenging fatty acids in extracts of Mycobacterium microti and Mycobacterium avium, as well as in extracts of M. leprae, was acetyl-CoA-dependent fatty acyl-CoA 'elongase'. This activity was about four times higher in M. avium and M. microti grown in a medium which contained lipids, or when grown in mice, than in medium without added lipids. In contrast, the de novo fatty acid synthetase activity was repressed in M. avium and M. microti when grown in medium that contained lipids, or when grown in mice. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that mycobacteria grown in vivo preferentially scavenge lipids from the host cells, and suggest that a source of lipid should be included in media for attempted axenic isolation of M. leprae.     

Analysis and visualization of H7 influenza using genomic,evolutionary and geographic information in a modular web service

We have reported previously on use of a web‐based application, Supramap ( http://supramap.org ) for the study of biogeographic, genotypic, and phenotypic evolution. Using Supramap we have developed maps of the spread of drug‐resistant influenza and host shifts in H1N1 and H5N1 influenza and coronaviruses such as SARS. Here we report on another zoonotic pathogen, H7 influenza, and provide an update on the implementation of Supramap as a web service. We find that the emergence of pathogenic strains of H7 is labile with many transitions from high to low pathogenicity, and from low to high pathogenicity. We use Supramap to put these events in a temporal and geospatial context. We identify several lineages of H7 influenza with biomarkers of high pathogenicity in regions that have not been reported in the scientific literature. The original implementation of Supramap was built with tightly coupled client and server software. Now we have decoupled the components to provide a modular web service for POY ( http://poyws.org ) that can be consumed by a data provider to create a novel application. To demonstrate the web service, we have produced an application, Geogenes ( http://geogenes.org ). Unlike in Supramap, in which the user is required to create and upload data files, in Geogenes the user works from a graphical interface to query an underlying dataset. Geogenes demonstrates how the web service can provide underlying processing for any sequence and metadata database. © The Willi Hennig Society 2012.     

Recent origin,active speciation and dispersal for the lichen genus Nephroma (Peltigerales) in Macaronesia

Aim We reconstructed the phylogeny of the lichen genus Nephroma (Peltigerales) to assess the relationships of species endemic to Macaronesia. We estimated dates of divergences to test the hypothesis that the species arose in Macaronesia (neo‐endemism) versus the oceanic archipelagos serving as refugia for formerly widespread taxa (palaeo‐endemism). Location Cosmopolitan with a special focus on the archipelagos of the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands. Methods DNA sequences were obtained from 18 species for three loci and analysed using maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood and Bayesian inferences. Divergence dates were estimated for the internal transcribed spacer (ITS)‐based phylogeny using a relaxed molecular clock. Reconstruction of the ancestral geographical range was conducted using the Bayesian 50% majority rule consensus tree under a parsimony method. Results The backbone phylogenetic tree was fully supported, with Nephroma plumbeum as sister to all other species. Four strongly supported clades were detected: the Nephroma helveticum, the N. bellum, the N. laevigatum and the N. parile clades. The latter two share a common ancestor and each includes a widespread Holarctic species (N. laevigatum and N. parile, respectively) and all species endemic to Macaronesia. The data suggest a neo‐endemic origin of Macaronesian taxa, a recent range expansion from Macaronesia of both widespread species, a range expansion limited to the Mediteranean Basin and south‐western Europe for another taxon, and a long dispersal event that resulted in a speciation event in the western parts of North America. Main conclusions The Macaronesian endemic species belong to two sister clades and originated from a most recent common ancestor (MRCA) shared with one widely distributed taxon, either N. parile or N. laevigatum. Estimates of the mean divergence dates suggest that the endemics originated in the archipelagos after the rise of the volcanic islands, along with the ancestor to the now widespread species, which probably expanded their range beyond Macaronesia via long‐distance dispersal. This study provides the first phylogenetic evidence of Macaronesian neo‐endemism in lichenized fungi and provides support for the hypothesis that oceanic islands may serve as a source for the colonization of continents. However, further data are needed to properly assess the alternative hypothesis, namely colonization from western North America.     

Analyzing the dynamics of cell cycle processes from fixed samples through ergodic principles

Tools to analyze cyclical cellular processes, particularly the cell cycle, are of broad value for cell biology. Cell cycle synchronization and live-cell time-lapse observation are widely used to analyze these processes but are not available for many systems. Simple mathematical methods built on the ergodic principle are a well-established, widely applicable, and powerful alternative analysis approach, although they are less widely used. These methods extract data about the dynamics of a cyclical process from a single time-point “snapshot” of a population of cells progressing through the cycle asynchronously. Here, I demonstrate application of these simple mathematical methods to analysis of basic cyclical processes—cycles including a division event, cell populations undergoing unicellular aging, and cell cycles with multiple fission (schizogony)—as well as recent advances that allow detailed mapping of the cell cycle from continuously changing properties of the cell such as size and DNA content. This includes examples using existing data from mammalian, yeast, and unicellular eukaryotic parasite cell biology. Through the ongoing advances in high-throughput cell analysis by light microscopy, electron microscopy, and flow cytometry, these mathematical methods are becoming ever more important and are a powerful complementary method to traditional synchronization and time-lapse cell cycle analysis methods.     

A phylogenetic analysis and revised classification of the Monocotylidae Taschenberg, 1879 (Monogenea)

The Monocotylidae Taschenberg, 1879 is revised based on a cladistic analysis of relationships between the constituent species and genera. The monophyly of the family is supported by three apomorphic character states: division of the haptor into one central and eight peripheral loculi; the ovary looping the right intestinal caecum; and tetrahedral eggs. The family is divided into six subfamilies: Calicotylinae Monticelli, 1903 (comprising Calicotyle Diesing, 1850, Dictyocotyle Nybelin, 1941); Dasybatotreminae Bychowsky, 1957 (comprising Anoplocotyloides Young, 1967, Dasybatotrema Price, 1938, Timofeevia n. g., Troglocephalus Young, 1967); Decacotylinae n. subfam. (comprising Decacotyle Young, 1967, Papillicotyle Young, 1967); Heterocotylinae n. subfam. (comprising Heterocotyle Scott, 1904, Neoheterocotyle Hargis, 1955, Nonacotyle Ogawa, 1991, Potamotrygonocotyle Mayes, Brooks & Thorson, 1981, Spinuris Doran, 1953); Merizocotylinae Johnston & Tiegs, 1922 (comprising Cathariotrema Johnston & Tiegs, 1922, Empruthotrema Johnston & Tiegs, 1922, Merizocotyle Cerfontaine, 1894, Squalotrema Kearn & Green, 1983, Triloculotrema Kearn, 1993); and Monocotylinae Taschenberg, 1879 (comprising Clemacotyle Young, 1967, Dendromonocotyle Hargis, 1955, Monocotyle Taschenberg, 1878). The Dendromonocotylinae Hargis, 1955 is removed from subfamilial status and the two genera previously assigned to the subfamily are reassigned to the Monocotylinae. Timofeevia is proposed for Timofeevia rajae (Timofeeva, 1983) n. comb. (formerly Dasybatotrema rajae). Mycteronastes Kearn & Beverley-Burton, 1990 and Thaumatocotyle Scott, 1904 are synonymised with Merizocotyle. Gymnocalicotyle Nybelin, 1941 is not considered a distinct taxon. Revised diagnoses and keys for subfamilies and genera of the Monocotylidae are provided.     

Explicit Mentalizing Mechanisms and Their Adaptive Role in Memory Conformity

Memory conformity occurs when an individual endorses what other individuals remember about past events. Research on memory conformity is currently dominated by a ‘forensic’ perspective, which views the phenomenon as inherently undesirable. This is because conformity not only distorts the accuracy of an individual''s memory, but also produces false corroboration between individuals, effects that act to undermine criminal justice systems. There is growing awareness, however, that memory conformity may be interpreted more generally as an adaptive social behavior regulated by explicit mentalizing mechanisms. Here, we provide novel evidence in support of this emerging alternative theoretical perspective. We carried out a memory conformity experiment which revealed that explicit belief-simulation (i.e. using one''s own beliefs to model what other people believe) systematically biases conformity towards like-minded individuals, even when there is no objective evidence that they have a more accurate memory than dissimilar individuals. We suggest that this bias is functional, i.e. adaptive, to the extent that it fosters trust, and hence cooperation, between in-group versus out-group individuals. We conclude that memory conformity is, in more fundamental terms, a highly desirable product of explicit mentalizing mechanisms that promote adaptive forms of social learning and cooperation.