Phylogenetic analysis of cuckoo wasps (Hymenoptera: Chrysididae) reveals a partially artificial classification at the genus level and a species‐rich clade of bee parasitoids

Cuckoo wasps (Hymenoptera: Chrysididae) are a species‐rich family of obligate brood parasites (i.e. parasitoids and kleptoparasites) whose hosts range from sawflies, wasps and bees, to walking sticks and moths. Their brood parasitic lifestyle has led to the evolution of fascinating adaptations, including chemical mimicry of host odours by some species. Long‐term nomenclatural stability of the higher taxonomic units (e.g. genera, tribes, and subfamilies) in this family and a thorough understanding of the family's evolutionary history critically depend on a robust phylogeny of cuckoo wasps. Here we present the results from phylogenetically analysing ten nuclear‐encoded genes and one mitochondrial gene, all protein‐coding, in a total of 186 different species of cuckoo wasps representing most major cuckoo wasp lineages. The compiled data matrix comprised 4946 coding nucleotide sites and was phylogenetically analysed using classical maximum‐likelihood and Bayesian inference methods. The results of our phylogenetic analyses are mostly consistent with earlier ideas on the phylogenetic relationships of the cuckoo wasps' subfamilies and tribes, but cast doubts on the hitherto hypothesized phylogenetic position of the subfamily Amiseginae. However, the molecular data are not fully conclusive in this respect due to low branch support values at deep nodes. In contrast, our phylogenetic estimates clearly indicate that the current systematics of cuckoo wasps at the genus level is artificial. Several of the currently recognized genera are para‐ or polyphyletic (e.g. Cephaloparnops, Chrysis, Chrysura, Euchroeus, Hedychridium, Praestochrysis, Pseudochrysis, Spintharina, and Spinolia). At the same time, our data support the validity of the genus Colpopyga, previously synonymized with Hedychridium. We discuss possible solutions for how to resolve the current shortcomings in the systematics of cuckoo wasp genera and decided to grant Prospinolia the status of a valid genus (Prospinolia stat.n. ) and transferring Spinolia theresae [du Buysson 1900] from Spinolia to Prospinolia (Prospinolia theresae stat.restit. ). We discuss the implications of our phylogenetic inferences for understanding the evolution of host associations in this group. The results of our study not only shed new light on the evolutionary history of cuckoo wasps, but also set the basis for future phylogenomic investigations on this captivating group of wasps by guiding taxonomic sampling efforts and the design of probes for target DNA enrichment approaches.     

Population Changes of Heterodera glycines and Soybean Yields Resulting from Soil Treatment with Alachlor,Fenamiphos, and Ethoprop

The population dynamics of Heterodera glycines as influenced by alachlor, fenamiphos, and ethoprop alone and in herbicide-nematicide combinations were studied in the field. Numbers of H. glycines juveniles and eggs were higher at midseason and harvest where nematicides were applied. Fenamiphos alone or in combination with alachlor provided better control of H. glycines and greater seed yields than treatments with ethoprop. Numbers of H. glycines eggs at harvest in 1980 were positively correlated with numbers of juveniles at planting in 1981 and negatively related to seed yield in 1981.     

Molecular recognition of anions by synthetic receptors

Over the past year, several significant developments have been made in the field of anion binding. The fundamental principles of molecular recognition are increasingly being better understood, and of particular interest are reports of several synthetic anion receptors able to perform their task in complex natural media. Additionally, macroscopic devices such as anion specific electrodes and membranes based on a molecular recognition approach are now being made.     

Phylogenetic island disequilibrium: evidence for ongoing long‐term population dynamics in two Mediterranean butterflies

Aim Our aims were to verify the existence of phylogenetic disequilibrium between butterfly lineages at the subcontinental scale for islands and the nearest mainland and to test the capacity of islands for hosting ancestral populations of butterflies and the significance of such relict populations. Location The western Mediterranean continental area of Europe and North Africa together with several large and small islands (Balearics, Tuscan Archipelago, Aeolian Archipelago, Capri, Sardinia, Sicily, Corsica). Methods Using geometric morphometrics, the shape of male genitalia was analysed in two common butterflies (Pyronia cecilia and Pyronia tithonus), whose spatial heterogeneity in the Mediterranean region has recently been described. Observed patterns in genital shapes were compared with shapes predicted for islands and fossil islands to assess the contribution of historical and current events in accounting for the transition from a refugial model to an equilibrium model. Measurements were taken for 473 specimens in 90 insular and mainland sites. Results The shape of the genitalia of populations of most islands differed substantially from that predicted by the equilibrium hypothesis while closely fitting the refugial hypothesis. The comparison between different models strongly suggests that islands maintain ancestral lineages similar to those living in Spain (P. cecilia) and France (P. tithonus). A high correlation between observed and predicted patterns on islands and fossil islands occurs during the first steps of modelled introgressive hybridization while the following steps exposed a successively lower fit, suggesting that the process from a refugial to an equilibrium situation is highly skewed towards an earlier non‐equilibrium. Main conclusions The observed non‐equilibrium pattern supports the refugial hypothesis, suggesting that an ancestral lineage was originally distributed from Spain to Italy, and also occupied offshore islands. This lineage, replaced in Italy, has persisted on the islands owing to their isolation. A comparison of the distribution patterns for genetic and morphometric markers in several species indicates that the situation highlighted for Pyronia may represent a common biogeographic feature for many Mediterranean butterflies.