Function of the apetala-1 gene during Arabidopsis floral development.

We have characterized the floral phenotypes produced by the recessive homeotic apetala 1-1 (ap1-1) mutation in Arabidopsis. Plants homozygous for this mutation display a homeotic conversion of sepsis into brachts and the concomitant formation of floral buds in the axil of each transformed sepal. In addition, these flowers lack petals. We show that the loss of petal phenotype is due to the failure of petal primordia to be initiated. We have also constructed double mutant combinations with ap1 and other mutations affecting floral development. Based on these results, we suggest that the AP1 and the apetala 2 (AP2) genes may encode similar functions that are required to define the pattern of where floral organs arise, as well as for determinate development of the floral meristem. We propose that the AP1 and AP2 gene products act in concert with the product of the agamous (AG) locus to establish a determinate floral meristem, whereas other homeotic gene products are required for cells to differentiate correctly according to their position. These results extend the proposed role of the homeotic genes in floral development and suggest new models for the establishment of floral pattern.     

Conservation of floral homeotic gene function between Arabidopsis and antirrhinum.

Several homeotic genes controlling floral development have been isolated in both Antirrhinum and Arabidopsis. Based on the similarities in sequence and in the phenotypes elicited by mutations in some of these genes, it has been proposed that the regulatory hierarchy controlling floral development is comparable in these two species. We have performed a direct experimental test of this hypothesis by introducing a chimeric Antirrhinum Deficiens (DefA)/Arabidopsis APETALA3 (AP3) gene, under the control of the Arabidopsis AP3 promoter, into Arabidopsis. We demonstrated that this transgene is sufficient to partially complement severe mutations at the AP3 locus. In combination with a weak ap3 mutation, this transgene is capable of completely rescuing the mutant phenotype to a fully functional wild-type flower. These observations indicate that despite differences in DNA sequence and expression, DefA coding sequences can compensate for the loss of AP3 gene function. We discuss the implications of these results for the evolution of homeotic gene function in flowering plants.     

Heterochronic Effects of Teopod 2 on the Growth and Photosensitivity of the Maize Shoot

Teopod 2 (Tp2) is a semidominant mutation of maize that prolongs the expression of juvenile vegetative traits, increases the total number of leaves produced by the shoot, and transforms reproductive structures into vegetative ones. Here, we show that Tp2 prolongs the duration of vegetative growth without prolonging the overall duration of shoot growth. Mutant shoots produce leaves at the same rate as wild-type plants and continue to produce leaves after wild-type plants have initiated a tassel. Although Tp2/+ plants initiate a tassel later than their wild-type siblings, this mutant tassel ceases differentiation at the same time as, or shortly before, the primary meristem of a wild-type tassel completes its development. To investigate the relationship between the vegetative and reproductive development of the shoot, Tp2/+ and wild-type plants were exposed to floral inductive short day (SD) treatments at various stages of shoot growth. Tassel initiation in wild-type plants (which normally produced 18 to 19 leaves) was maximally sensitive to SD between plastochrons 15 and 16, whereas tassel branching was maximally sensitive to SD between plastochrons 15 and 18. Tassel initiation and tassel morphology in Tp2/+ plants (which normally produced 21 to 26 leaves) were both maximally sensitive to SD between plastochrons 15 and 18. Thus, the constitutive expression of a juvenile vegetative program in Tp2/+ plants does not significantly delay the reproductive maturation of the shoot.     

Tooth and consequences: Heterodonty and dental replacement in piranhas and pacus (Serrasalmidae)

Tooth replacement in piranhas is unusual: all teeth on one side of the head are lost as a unit, then replaced simultaneously. We used histology and microCT to examine tooth‐replacement modes across carnivorous piranhas and their herbivorous pacu cousins (Serrasalmidae) and then mapped replacement patterns onto a molecular phylogeny. Pacu teeth develop and are replaced in a manner like piranhas. For serrasalmids, unilateral tooth replacement is not an “all or nothing” phenomenon; we demonstrate that both sides of the jaws have developing tooth rows within them, albeit with one side more mineralized than the other. All serrasalmids (except one) share unilateral tooth replacement, so this is not an adaptation for carnivory. All serrasalmids have interlocking teeth; piranhas interdigitate lateral tooth cusps with adjacent teeth, forming a singular saw‐like blade, whereas lateral cusps in pacus clasp together. For serrasalmids to have an interlocking dentition, their teeth need to develop and erupt at the same time. We propose that interlocking mechanisms prevent tooth loss and ensure continued functionality of the feeding apparatus. Serrasalmid dentitions are ubiquitously heterodont, having incisiform and molariform dentitions reminiscent of mammals. Finally, we propose that simultaneous tooth replacement be considered as a synapomorphy for the family.     

Beyond Arabidopsis. Translational biology meets evolutionary developmental biology

Developmental processes shape plant morphologies, which constitute important adaptive traits selected for during evolution. Identifying the genes that act in developmental pathways and determining how they are modified during evolution is the focus of the field of evolutionary developmental biology, or evo-devo. Knowledge of genetic pathways in the plant model Arabidopsis serves as the starting point for investigating how the toolkit of developmental pathways has been used and reused to form different plant body plans. One productive approach is to identify genes in other species that are orthologous to genes known to control developmental pathways in Arabidopsis and then determine what changes have occurred in the protein coding sequence or in the gene's expression to produce an altered morphology. A second approach relies on natural variation among wild populations or crop plants. Natural variation can be exploited to identify quantitative trait loci that underlie important developmental traits and, thus, define those genes that are responsible for adaptive changes. The possibility of applying comparative genomics approaches to Arabidopsis and related species promises profound new insights into the interplay of evolution and development.     

The wandering carpel mutation of Zea mays (Gramineae) causes misorientation and loss of zygomorphy in flowers and two-seeded kernels

We have isolated a new mutation, wandering carpel (wcr), which affects polarity of the maize flower, altering its orientation or converting it from zygomorphy to radial symmetry. These changes result in the development of embryos on locations other than the normal, acropetal side of the kernel. More than two carpels can develop into silks. More rarely, two ovules develop in a single ovary, giving rise to kernels with two seeds. The wcr mutation is a maternal-sporophyte-effect, semidominant mutation whose expression is background dependent. As spikelets with abnormal flowers are almost always paired with a normal spikelet, we hypothesize that WCR+ is required for establishing polarity in spikelet meristems during inflorescence development.     

Ancient teeth and modern human origins: an expanded comparison of African Plio-Pleistocene and recent world dental samples

Previous research by the first author revealed that, relative to other modern peoples, sub-Saharan Africans exhibit the highest frequencies of ancestral (or plesiomorphic) dental traits and, thus, appear to be least derived dentally from an ancestral hominin state. This determination, in conjunction with various other lines of dental morphological evidence, was interpreted to be supportive of an African origin for modern humans. The present investigation expands upon this work by using: 1) direct observations of fossil hominin teeth, rather than data gleaned from published sources, 2) a single morphological scoring system (the Arizona State University Dental Anthropology System) with consistent trait breakpoints, and 3) data from larger and more varied modern human comparative samples. As before, a multivariate distance statistic, the mean measure of divergence, was used to assess diachronic phenetic affinities among the Plio-Pleistocene hominins and modern humans. The present study also employed principal components analysis on dental trait frequencies across samples. Both methods yielded similar results, which support the previous findings; that is, of all modern human samples, sub-Saharan Africans again exhibit the closest phenetic similarity to various African Plio-Pleistocene hominins-through their shared prevalence of morphologically complex crown and root traits. The fact that sub-Saharan Africans express these apparently plesiomorphic characters, along with additional information on their affinity to other modern populations, evident intra-population heterogeneity, and a world-wide dental cline emanating from the sub-continent, provides further evidence that is consistent with an African origin model.