TWO BOTANISTS,A FINANCIAL CRISIS AND BRITAIN'S FIRST EMBASSY TO CHINA

This essay reveals a financial dimension to Captain John Blake and his son John Bradby Blake's involvement with China, namely, their participation in financing the Canton trade through predatory loans to Chinese Hong merchants. Widespread predatory lending in Canton led to a financial crisis during the late 1770s, which ruined several British and Chinese merchants. In an effort to recover the money they claimed was owed to them, many British traders, including John Blake, formed a lobby group in London and authorized Britain's first Ambassador to China to negotiate with the Emperor in Beijing on their behalf.     

Broad Anatomical Variation within a Narrow Wood Density Range—A Study of Twig Wood across 69 Australian Angiosperms

ObjectivesJust as people with the same weight can have different body builds, woods with the same wood density can have different anatomies. Here, our aim was to assess the magnitude of anatomical variation within a restricted range of wood density and explore its potential ecological implications.MethodsTwig wood of 69 angiosperm tree and shrub species was analyzed. Species were selected so that wood density varied within a relatively narrow range (0.38–0.62 g cm^-3). Anatomical traits quantified included wood tissue fractions (fibres, axial parenchyma, ray parenchyma, vessels, and conduits with maximum lumen diameter below 15 μm), vessel properties, and pith area. To search for potential ecological correlates of anatomical variation the species were sampled across rainfall and temperature contrasts, and several other ecologically-relevant traits were measured (plant height, leaf area to sapwood area ratio, and modulus of elasticity).ResultsDespite the limited range in wood density, substantial anatomical variation was observed. Total parenchyma fraction varied from 0.12 to 0.66 and fibre fraction from 0.20 to 0.74, and these two traits were strongly inversely correlated (r = -0.86, P < 0.001). Parenchyma was weakly (0.24 ≤|r|≤ 0.35, P < 0.05) or not associated with vessel properties nor with height, leaf area to sapwood area ratio, and modulus of elasticity (0.24 ≤|r|≤ 0.41, P < 0.05). However, vessel traits were fairly well correlated with height and leaf area to sapwood area ratio (0.47 ≤|r|≤ 0.65, all P < 0.001). Modulus of elasticity was mainly driven by fibre wall plus vessel wall fraction rather than by the parenchyma component.ConclusionsOverall, there seem to be at least three axes of variation in xylem, substantially independent of each other: a wood density spectrum, a fibre-parenchyma spectrum, and a vessel area spectrum. The fibre-parenchyma spectrum does not yet have any clear or convincing ecological interpretation.     

Mechanistic studies on aromatase and related C---C bond cleaving P-450 enzymes

Some P-450 systems, notably aromatase and 14-demethylase catalyse not only the hydroxylate reaction but also the oxidation of an alcohol into a carbonyl compound as well as a C---C bond cleavage process. All these reactions occur at the same active site. A somewhat analogous situation is noted with 17-hydroxylase-17,20-lyase that participates in hydroxylation as well as C---C bond cleavage process. The C---C bond cleavage reactions catalysed by the above enzymes conform to the general equation:

Full-size image

It is argued that all three types of reaction catalyzed by these enzymes may be viewed as variations on a common theme. In P-450 dependent hydroxylation the initially formed Fe^III---O---O^. species is converted into Fe^III---O---OH and the heterolysis of the oxygen—oxygen bond of the latter then gives the oxo-derivative for which a number of canonical structures are possible; for example Fe^V = O ↔ (+^.)Fe^IV = O ↔ Fe^IV---O^.. One of these, Fe^IV---O^. behaves like an alkoxyl radical and participates in hydrogen abstraction from C---H bond to produce Fe^IV---OH and carbon radical. The latter is then quenched by the delivery of hydroxyl radical from Fe^IV---OH. The latter species may thus be regarded as a carrier of hydroxyl radical. We have proposed that the C---C bond cleavage reaction occurs through the participation of the Fe^III---O---OH species that is trapped by the electrophilic property of the carbonyl compound giving a peroxide adduct that fragments to produce an acyl—carbon cleavage. Scientific developments leading up to this conclusion are considered. In the first author's views,

“The study of mechanisms is not a scientific but a cultural activity. Mechanisms do not aim at an absolute truth but are intended to be a “running” commentary on the status of knowledge in a field. As the structural knowledge in a field advances Mechanisms evolve to take note of the new findings. Just as a constructive “running” commentary provides the stimulus for higher standards of performance, so Mechanisms call for better and firmer structural information from their practitioners”.     

A decade of diabetes: keeping children out of hospital.

OBJECTIVES--To document the number of children aged less than 15 years who developed diabetes and were managed within one large health district, and to evaluate the outcome of those children managed without hospital admission at diagnosis. DESIGN--A retrospective study over 1979-88, when a paediatrician and a physician with special interests in childhood diabetes initiated joint clinics. Data collected from the district diabetes register and files of consultants and health visitors specialising in diabetes. SETTING--Referral of children to consultants in Leicestershire (total population 863,000). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES--The proportion of children managed without hospital admission, comparison of readmission rates and glycated haemoglobin concentrations between children admitted and those not admitted. RESULTS--Over 10 years 236 children aged 10-14 years developed diabetes (annual incidence rate 12.8/100,000 child population (95% confidence interval 11.3 to 14.7)). In total 138 were not admitted to hospital but received supervised management based at home. Admitted children were younger or acidotic or their family doctors did not contact the diabetes team. Duration of admission declined from seven days in 1979-80 to three days in 1987-8. Ninety two were not admitted to hospital during the 10 years for any reason. Significantly fewer children who received management at home were readmitted for reasons related to diabetes than the group treated in hospital (30 (22%) v 40 (41%); p = 0.004). Concentrations of glycated haemoglobin were no different between the two groups. CONCLUSIONS--Children with newly diagnosed diabetes may be safely and effectively managed out of hospital. Domiciliary or community based management depends on the commitment of consultants specialising in diabetes working in close cooperation with general practitioners, specialist nurses in diabetes, and dietitians.