Lack of Melanopsin Is Associated with Extreme Weight Loss in Mice upon Dietary Challenge

Metabolic disorders have been established as major risk factors for ocular complications and poor vision. However, little is known about the inverse possibility that ocular disease may cause metabolic dysfunction. To test this hypothesis, we assessed the metabolic consequences of a robust dietary challenge in several mouse models suffering from retinal mutations. To this end, mice null for melanopsin (Opn4^-/-), the photopigment of intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs), were subjected to five weeks of a ketogenic diet. These mice lost significantly more weight than wild-type controls or mice lacking rod and cone photoreceptors (Pde6b^rd1/rd1). Although ipRGCs are critical for proper circadian entrainment, and circadian misalignment has been implicated in metabolic pathology, we observed no differences in entrainment between Opn4^-/- and control mice. Additionally, we observed no differences in any tested metabolic parameter between these mouse strains. Further studies are required to establish the mechanism giving rise to this dramatic phenotype observed in melanopsin-null mice. We conclude that the causality between ocular disease and metabolic disorders merits further investigation due to the popularity of diets that rely on the induction of a ketogenic state. Our study is a first step toward understanding retinal pathology as a potential cause of metabolic dysfunction.     

Root growth dynamics linked to above-ground growth in walnut (Juglans regia)

Background and Aims Examination of plant growth below ground is relatively scant compared with that above ground, and is needed to understand whole-plant responses to the environment. This study examines whether the seasonal timing of fine root growth and the spatial distribution of this growth through the soil profile varies in response to canopy manipulation and soil temperature.Methods Plasticity in the seasonal timing and vertical distribution of root production in response to canopy and soil water manipulation was analysed in field-grown walnut (Juglans regia ‘Chandler’) using minirhizotron techniques.Key Results Root production in walnuts followed a unimodal curve, with one marked flush of root growth starting in mid-May, with a peak in mid-June. Root production declined later in the season, corresponding to increased soil temperature, as well as to the period of major carbohydrate allocation to reproduction. Canopy and soil moisture manipulation did not influence the timing of root production, but did influence the vertical distribution of roots through the soil profile. Water deficit appeared to promote root production in deeper soil layers for mining soil water. Canopy removal appeared to promote shallow root production.Conclusions The findings of this study add to growing evidence that root growth in many ecosystems follows a unimodal curve with one marked flush of root growth in coordination with the initial leaf flush of the season. Root vertical distribution appeared to have greater plasticity than timing of root production in this system, with temperature and/or carbohydrate competition constraining the timing of root growth. Effects on root distribution can have serious impacts on trees, with shallow rooting having negative impacts in years with limited soil water or positive impacts in years with wet springs, and deep rooting having positive impacts on soil water mining from deeper soil layers but negative impacts in years with wet springs.     

Astrocyte Resilience to Oxidative Stress Induced by Insulin-like Growth Factor I (IGF-I) Involves Preserved AKT (Protein Kinase B) Activity

Disruption of insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) signaling is a key step in the development of cancer or neurodegeneration. For example, interference of the prosurvival IGF-I/AKT/FOXO3 pathway by redox activation of the stress kinases p38 and JNK is instrumental in neuronal death by oxidative stress. However, in astrocytes, IGF-I retains its protective action against oxidative stress. The molecular mechanisms underlying this cell-specific protection remain obscure but may be relevant to unveil new ways to combat IGF-I/insulin resistance. Here, we describe that, in astrocytes exposed to oxidative stress by hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), p38 activation did not inhibit AKT (protein kinase B) activation by IGF-I, which is in contrast to our previous observations in neurons. Rather, stimulation of AKT by IGF-I was significantly higher and more sustained in astrocytes than in neurons either under normal or oxidative conditions. This may be explained by phosphorylation of the phosphatase PTEN at the plasma membrane in response to IGF-I, inducing its cytosolic translocation and preserving in this way AKT activity. Stimulation of AKT by IGF-I, mimicked also by a constitutively active AKT mutant, reduced oxidative stress levels and cell death in H₂O₂-exposed astrocytes, boosting their neuroprotective action in co-cultured neurons. These results indicate that armoring of AKT activation by IGF-I is crucial to preserve its cytoprotective effect in astrocytes and may form part of the brain defense mechanism against oxidative stress injury.     

9G4+ Antibodies Isolated from HIV-Infected Patients Neutralize HIV-1 and Have Distinct Autoreactivity Profiles

Potent HIV-1 specific broadly neutralizing antibodies (BNA) are uncommon in HIV infected individuals, and have proven hard to elicit by vaccination. Several, isolated monoclonal BNA are polyreactive and also recognize self-antigens, suggesting a breach of immune tolerance in persons living with HIV (PLWH). Persons with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) often have elevated levels of autoreactive antibodies encoded by the VH4-34 heavy chain immunoglobulin gene whose protein product can be detected by the 9G4 rat monoclonal antibody. We have recently found that levels of these “9G4+” antibodies are also elevated in PLWH. However, the putative autoreactive nature of these antibodies and the relationship of such reactivities with HIV neutralization have not been investigated. We therefore examined the autoreactivity and HIV neutralization potential of 9G4+ antibodies from PLWH. Results show that 9G4+ antibodies from PLWH bound to recombinant HIV-1 envelope (Env) and neutralized viral infectivity in vitro, whereas 9G4+ antibodies from persons with SLE did not bind to Env and failed to neutralize viral infectivity. In addition, while 9G4+ antibodies from PLWH retained the canonical anti-i reactivity that mediates B cell binding, they did not display other autoreactivities common to SLE 9G4+ antibodies, such as binding to cardiolipin and DNA and had much lower reactivity with apoptotic cells. Taken together, these data indicate that the autoreactivity of 9G4+ antibodies from PLWH is distinct from that of SLE patients, and therefore, their expansion is not due to a general breakdown of B cell tolerance but is instead determined in a more disease-specific manner by self-antigens that become immunogenic in the context of, and possibly due to HIV infection. Further studies of 9G4+ B cells may shed light on the regulation of B cell tolerance and interface between the generation of specific autoreactivities and the induction of antiviral immunity in persons living with HIV.     

Biogeography of Iberian freshwater fishes revisited: the roles of historical versus contemporary constraints

Aim The question of how much of the shared geographical distribution of biota is due to environmental vs. historical constraints remains unanswered. The aim of this paper is to disentangle the contribution of historical vs. contemporary factors to the distribution of freshwater fish species. In addition, it illustrates how quantifying the contribution of each type of factor improves the classification of biogeographical provinces. Location Iberian Peninsula, south‐western Europe (c. 581,000 km²). Methods We used the most comprehensive data on native fish distributions for the Iberian Peninsula, compiled from Portuguese and Spanish sources on a 20‐km grid‐cell resolution. Overall, 58 species were analysed after being categorized into three groups according to their ability to disperse through saltwater: (1) species strictly intolerant of saltwater (primary species); (2) species partially tolerant of saltwater, making limited incursions into saltwaters (secondary species); and (3) saltwater‐tolerant species that migrate back and forth from sea to freshwaters or have invaded freshwaters recently (peripheral species). Distance‐based multivariate analyses were used to test the role of historical (basin formation) vs. contemporary environmental (climate) conditions in explaining current patterns of native fish assemblage composition. Cluster analyses were performed to explore species co‐occurrence patterns and redefine biogeographical provinces based on the distributions of fishes. Results River basin boundaries were better at segregating species composition for all species groups than contemporary climate variables. This historical signal was especially evident for primary and secondary freshwater fishes. Eleven biogeographical provinces were delineated. Basins flowing to the Atlantic Ocean north of the Tagus Basin and those flowing to the Mediterranean Sea north of the Mijares Basin were the most dissimilar group. Primary and secondary freshwater species had higher province fidelity than peripheral species. Main conclusions The results support the hypothesis that historical factors exert greater constraints on native freshwater fish assemblages in the Iberian Peninsula than do current environmental factors. After examining patterns of assemblage variation across space, as evidenced by the biogeographical provinces, we discuss the likely dispersal and speciation events that underlie these patterns.     

Interrelationships of Staphyliniform groups inferred from 18S and 28S rDNA sequences, with special emphasis on Hydrophiloidea (Coleoptera, Staphyliniformia)

The series Staphyliniformia is one of the mega‐diverse groups of Coleoptera, but the relationships among the main families are still poorly understood. In this paper we address the interrelationships of staphyliniform groups, with special emphasis on Hydrophiloidea and Hydraenidae, based on partial sequences of the ribosomal genes 18S rDNA and 28S rDNA. Sequence data were analysed with parsimony and Bayesian posterior probabilities, in an attempt to overcome the likely effect of some branches longer than the 95% cumulative probability of the estimated normal distribution of the path lengths of the species. The inter‐family relationships in the trees obtained with both methods were in general poorly supported, although most of the results based on the sequence data are in good agreement with morphological studies. In none of our analyses a close relationship between Hydraenidae and Hydrophiloidea was supported, contrary to the traditional view but in agreement with recent morphological investigations. Hydraenidae form a clade with Ptiliidae and Scydmaenidae in the tree obtained with Bayesian probabilities, but are placed as basal group of Staphyliniformia (with Silphidae as subordinate group) in the parsimony tree. Based on the analysed data with a limited set of outgroups Scarabaeoidea are nested within Staphyliniformia. However, this needs further support. Hydrophiloidea s.str., Sphaeridiinae, Histeroidea (Histeridae + Sphaeritidae), and all staphylinoid families included are confirmed as monophyletic, with the exception of Hydraenidae in the parsimony tree. Spercheidae are not a basal group within Hydrophiloidea, as has been previously suggested, but included in a polytomy with other Hydrophilidae in the Bayesian analyses, or its sistergroup (with the inclusion of Epimetopidae) in the parsimony tree. Helophorus is placed at the base of Hydrophiloidea in the parsimony tree. The monophyly of Hydrophiloidea s.l. (including the histeroid families) and Staphylinoidea could not be confirmed by the analysed data. Some results, such as a placement of Silphidae as subordinate group of Hydraenidae (parsimony tree), or a sistergroup relationship between Ptiliidae and Scydmaenidae, appear unlikely from a morphological point of view.