Interaction between Hsc70 and DnaJ homologues: relationship between Hsc70 polymerization and ATPase activity.

We previously found that, in the presence of ATP, DnaJ homologues catalytically induce formation of a metastable Hsc70 polymer and, similarly, the DnaJ homologue auxilin catalytically induces formation of a metastable Hsc70-clathrin basket complex. Since this suggests that the induction of metastable complexes, which form in ATP but dissociate in ADP, may be a general property of DnaJ homologues, in the present study we investigated in more detail the ability of DnaJ homologues to induce polymerization of Hsc70. This study shows that DnaJ homologues induce polymerization of Hsc70 at the same rate as they induce an initial burst of Hsc70 ATPase activity, showing that polymerization is a specific effect of DnaJ homologue binding to Hsc70. However, polymerization does not always accompany the initial burst of ATPase activity. The dependence of the rates of ATPase activity and polymerization on DnaJ homologue concentration shows that DnaJ homologues bind very weakly to Hsc70 in the presence of ATP and do not bind at all in ADP. Surprisingly, however, under certain conditions the rate of polymerization appears to be independent of Hsc70 concentration, suggesting that polymerization is a first-order reaction, perhaps occurring when two Hsc70 molecules bind to a single DnaJ molecule and then shift their binding to each other. We propose that both the polymerization of Hsc70 by DnaJ homologues and the presentation of substrate by DnaJ homologues to Hsc70 involve the bringing of substrate into proximity with Hsc70 and then independently inducing rapid ATP hydrolysis to cause formation of a metastable Hsc70-substrate complex.     

Aspartic acid 413 is important for the normal allosteric functioning of ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase.

As part of a structure-function analysis of the higher-plant ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGP), we used a random mutagenesis approach in combination with a novel bacterial complementation system to isolate over 100 mutants that were defective in glycogen production (T.W. Greene, S.E. Chantler, M.L. Khan, G.F. Barry, J. Preiss, T.W. Okita [1996] Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93: 1509-1513). One mutant of the large subunit M27 was identified by its capacity to only partially complement a mutation in the structural gene for the bacterial AGP (glg C), as determined by its light-staining phenotype when cells were exposed to l3 vapors. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and enzymatic pyrophosphorylysis assays of M27 cell extracts showed that the level of expression and AGP activity was comparable to those of cells that expressed the wild-type recombinant enzyme. Kinetic analysis indicated that the M27 AGP displays normal Michaelis constant values for the substrates glucose-1-phosphate and ATP but requires 6- to 10-fold greater levels of 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA) than the wild-type recombinant enzyme for maximum activation. DNA sequence analysis showed that M27 contains a single point mutation that resulted in the replacement of aspartic acid 413 to alanine. Substitution of a lysine residue at this site almost completely abolished activation by 3-PGA. Aspartic acid 413 is adjacent to a lysine residue that was previously identified by chemical modification studies to be important in the binding of 3-PGA (K. Ball, J. Preiss [1994] J Biol Chem 269: 24706-24711). The kinetic properties of M27 corroborate the importance of this region in the allosteric regulation of a higher-plant AGP.     

The importance of scale in comparative microbiome research: New insights from the gut and glands of captive and wild lemurs

Research on animal microbiomes is increasingly aimed at determining the evolutionary and ecological factors that govern host–microbiome dynamics, which are invariably intertwined and potentially synergistic. We present three empirical studies related to this topic, each of which relies on the diversity of Malagasy lemurs (representing a total of 19 species) and the comparative approach applied across scales of analysis. In Study 1, we compare gut microbial membership across 14 species in the wild to test the relative importance of host phylogeny and feeding strategy in mediating microbiome structure. Whereas host phylogeny strongly predicted community composition, the same feeding strategies shared by distant relatives did not produce convergent microbial consortia, but rather shaped microbiomes in host lineage‐specific ways, particularly in folivores. In Study 2, we compare 14 species of wild and captive folivores, frugivores, and omnivores, to highlight the importance of captive populations for advancing gut microbiome research. We show that the perturbational effect of captivity is mediated by host feeding strategy and can be mitigated, in part, by modified animal management. In Study 3, we examine various scent‐gland microbiomes across three species in the wild or captivity and show them to vary by host species, sex, body site, and a proxy of social status. These rare data provide support for the bacterial fermentation hypothesis in olfactory signal production and implicate steroid hormones as mediators of microbial community structure. We conclude by discussing the role of scale in comparative microbial studies, the links between feeding strategy and host–microbiome coadaptation, the underappreciated benefits of captive populations for advancing conservation research, and the need to consider the entirety of an animal's microbiota. Ultimately, these studies will help move the field from exploratory to hypothesis‐driven research.     

The binding of pentaammineruthenium (III) to RNase B and RNase A+d(pA)4 in the crystalline state

The binding of pentaammineruthenium (III) to ribonuclease A and B both free and complexed with d(pA)₄ has been examined in the crystalline state through the application of X-ray diffraction and difference Fourier techniques. In crystals of native RNase B, the reagent was observed to have many binding sites, some entirely electrostatic in nature and others consistent with coordination to histidine residues. The primary histidine in the latter case was 105 with 119 also partially substituted. In crystals of RNase A+d(pA)₄ complex only a single, extremely strong site of substitution was observed, and this was 2.4 Å from the native position of the imidazole ring of histidine 105. Thus, the results of these X-ray diffraction studies appear to be quite consistent with the findings of earlier NMR studies and with the results obtained in crystals of the gene 5 DNA binding protein.     

Structural analysis of covalently labeled estrogen receptors by limited proteolysis and monoclonal antibody reactivity

We have used limited proteolysis of affinity-labeled estrogen receptors (ER), coupled with antireceptor antibody immunoreactivity, to assess structural features of ER and the relatedness of ER from MCF-7 human breast cancer and rat uterine cells. MCF-7 ER preparations covalently labeled with [3H]tamoxifen aziridine [( 3H]TAZ) were treated with trypsin (T), alpha-chymotrypsin (C), or Staphylococcus aureus V8 protease prior to electrophoresis on sodium dodecyl sulfate gels. Fluorography revealed a distinctive ladder of ER fragments containing TAZ for each protease generated from the Mr 66,000 ER: for T, fragments of 50K, 38K, 36K, 31K, 29K, and 28K that with longer exposure generated a 6K fragment; for C, fragments of 50K, 38K, 35K, 33K, 31K, 19K, and 18K that with longer exposure generated 14K and 6K fragments; and for V8, ca. 10 fragments between 62K and 28K. Two-dimensional gels revealed charge heterogeneity (two to three spots between pI 5.5 and 6.2) of the 66K ER and the T-generated 28K meroreceptor form. Immunoblot detection with the primate-specific antibody D75P3 gamma revealed that all immunoreactive fragments corresponded to TAZ-labeled fragments but that some small TAZ-labeled fragments (V8-generated forms less than 47K and T-generated forms less than 31K) were no longer immunoreactive. In contrast, use of the antibody H222Sp gamma revealed a correspondence between TAZ-labeled and immunoreactive fragments down to the smallest fragments generated, ca. 6K for T and C and 28K for V8. MCF-7 nuclear and cytosol ER showed very similar digest patterns, and there was a remarkable similarity in the TAZ-labeled and H222-immunoreactive fragments generated by proteolysis of both MCF-7 and rat uterine ER. These findings reveal great structural similarities between the human (breast cancer) and rat (uterine) ER and between nuclear and cytosol ER, indicate charge heterogeneity of ER, and allow a comparison of the immunoreactive and hormone attachment site domains of the ER. The observation that T and C generate a ca. 6K TAZ-labeled fragment that is also detectable with the H222 antibody should be of interest in studies determining the hormone binding domain of the ER and in amino acid sequencing of this region.     

Characteristics of different cytoplasmic and nuclear estrogen receptors appearing with continuous hormonal exposure

Biochemical properties of cytosol estrogen receptor (ERC) and nuclear estrogen receptor (ERN) from rat uteri continuously exposed in vivo to 17 beta-[2,4,6,7-3H] estradiol ( [3H]E2) for 6 h have been studied on the basis of immunological recognition and chromatographic elution patterns. Overall concentrations of ERC and ERN did not change during this time period when receptor-saturating concentrations of [3H]E2 were maintained (Jakesz, R., Kasid, A., and Lippman, M. E. (1983) J. Biol. Chem. 258, 11798-11806); however, biochemical characteristics were different in ERC and ERN after short or long term hormonal exposure. When ERC from rats treated with estradiol for 30 min was applied to HAP or DEAE columns, two different ER binding components were seen. DNA binding in a cell-free system revealed that these binding components represented an activated and a nonactivated ERC population. After long term hormonal exposure (6 h), only one component of ERC with low DNA binding could be shown despite the preservation of an equivalent quantity of cytoplasmic binding activity. This binder does not react with a monoclonal antibody directed against extranuclear estrogen receptor species. These data suggest disappearance of the activated ERC population, with appearance of a new, immunologically nonrecognizable ERC species with 6 h of continuous hormonal exposure. Elution profiles of ERN on HAP chromatography reveal 2 different binding components at 30 min and at 6 h of continuous [3H]E2 exposure. There is an increase of the population eluted at higher molarity after 6 h of in vivo treatment. This later eluting binding component is the major DNA binder in vitro. ERN from both time points are recognized immunologically by monoclonal antibody. After reaction with the antibody, the sedimentation coefficient shifted to 8-9 S on sucrose gradients, but the previously described faster sedimentation of ERN extracted 6 h after injection persisted. We conclude that ER in both cellular compartments undergoes time-dependent alterations, which may be involved in the initiation of hormone action.     

On looking for neural networks and “cell assemblies” that underlie behavior: II. Neural realization of the mathematical model

Part I (P. H. Greene,Bull. Math. Biophysics,24, 247–275, 1962) discussed a number of formal properties of animal behavior, and presented evidence that these properties would follow naturally from a model in which patterns of neural activity in perception or motor action constituted the resonant responses of linear neural networks. Equations were derived for parameters characterizing networks which would possess desired resonant responses. These equations expressed purely mathematical requirements. The present paper shows that a simple neural model would be entirely adequate to meet these requirements. According to this model, an input locus may become functionally connected to a particular resonant response mode by firing at a frequency which comes to approach the resonant frequency of that mode. The information in a complicated “cell assembly” of the type considered could be transmitted through a nerve tract by a very simple frequency code. One neurological guess is that frequency-coded inputs excite the transients in dendritic networks. If the amplitude of the pattern becomes large, as it would near resonance, the all-or-none axonal response would become excited. This axonal response would tend to augment resonant patterns and disrupt other patterns, for a reason inherent in any linear network. Since resonant responses are automatically present in any linear network, unless special processes suppress them, they must have led to overt behavior in animals first possessing such networks. Evolution either suppressed this feature or exploited it. Since its properties resemble those of animal behavior, the latter might be suspected. Some implications are presented regarding what a physiologist might have to look for when he studies a neural system. This research was supported by the Office of Naval Research under Contract No. Nonr 2121(17) NR 049-148. Reproduction in whole or in part is permitted for any purpose of the United States Government.