Physiological responses of topmouth gudgeon, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pseudorasbora parva</Emphasis>, to predator cues and variation of current velocity

Predators, either through direct or indirect encounter and current velocity, are frequently stressful to fish living in stream waters. In nature, fish may experience both current velocity stress and predation danger simultaneously. Experiments were carried out to clarify to what extent predation risk (with reference to different types of predatory cues) and current velocity can induce physiological stress in a running-water dwelling fish, topmouth gudgeon (Pseudorasbora parva). Fish were exposed to an alarm substance, predator odor, and visual cue, as well to combinations of predation risk and elevated current velocities. Metabolic rate, ventilation rate and fish activity were measured. Results showed that irrespective of the type of encounter, the presence of predator imposed physiological stress on fish. Metabolic rate were 0.983 ± 0.312, 0.641 ± 0.151, 0.572 ± 0.063, and 0.277 ± 0.016 mg O₂ W⁻¹ h⁻¹ following presence of alarm substance, visual cue, predator odor and control, respectively. Dramatic changes in ventilation rate and activity affirmed that alarm substance induced the strongest stress, followed by predator odor and visual cue. Reactions appeared to mirror the extent of fish perceiving danger of predation. Predation risk together with current velocity induces stronger stress, much stronger than if the current velocity works as a single stressor. However, the interaction between predation risk and current velocity did not have a significant effect on metabolic function; magnitude of metabolic response to high current velocity might mask the metabolic response to predator presence. Small fish living in stream habitats that face local predation risk would spend higher energy expenditure that may have negative impacts on growth, and hence their fitness.     

Foraging of a Small Planktivore (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pseudorasbora parva</Emphasis>: Cyprinidae) and its Behavioral Flexibility in an Artificial Stream

The loss of feeding areas may pose a threat to many wintering waders because increased competition arising from reduced foraging space may force birds either to emigrate or to die. This has been demonstrated to occur in northwest European estuaries, but virtually no studies have been performed in the estuaries of southern Europe, where the loss of supratidal habitats (salines and saltmarshes), rather than intertidal habitats, are currently the main threat to waders’ habitats. If these habitats are lost, waders may be forced to move to the intertidal mudflats, perhaps increasing competition between individuals and ultimately leading to starvation or emigration. We tested this hypothesis in the Mondego estuary, a small estuary on Portugal’s west coast, which is presently under heavy human pressure. We used indirect methods to test for the occurrence of both components of intra-specific competition: interference and prey depletion. We found no evidence that either interference or depletion competition was occurring at present, either on the mudflats or in the salines. Overall, the results suggest that the intertidal mudflats may still be able to accommodate birds displaced from the destroyed supratidal salines, but modelling is required to predict the effect that the combined loss of feeding area and foraging time that this would entail would have on their fitness, and thus numbers.     

The effects of predation risk and current velocity stress on growth,condition and swimming energetics of Japanese minnow (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pseudorasbora parva</Emphasis>)

A Japanese minnow, Pseudorasbora parva, was exposed simultaneously to multiple dangers in experimental tanks. The study aimed to quantify to what extent the risk of predation coinciding with an adverse environmental factor, high flow velocity, affects prey in terms of growth and energy expenditure. In this experiment, two measures of growth (i.e., body weight and length), condition, feeding, swimming cost and behavioral responses were analyzed. The results showed that in such an environment, prey showed lowered growth and were in a poorer condition. As the prey shifted to the shallow area with high flow velocity, the prey consumed a lower ration and incurred multiple costs for swimming locomotion that might reduce the allocation of energy to biomass and energy storage. Reduction in activity might decrease the cost of locomotion, but it did not have a considerable effect on overall swimming energy expenditure. In stream ecosystems, the high swimming energy expenditure appears to magnify the effects of predation risk by causing lowered growth and a poorer condition and, hence, fitness. The present study shows that high flow velocity is one of the environmental factors that determine the energetic responses of a potential prey to the presence of predators.