Symbols, Meaning, and Origins of Mind

The mind maps symbols and the extra-symbolic relationships amongst them to specific meanings. When symbols of various levels are placed in a hierarchical ordering, one may look at such ordered classes as distinct worlds where one class represents objects and the other represents the objects’ corresponding meanings. However, such an explanation can only be partial because the number of potential levels in such an ordering is infinite and, therefore, it engenders problems of recursion and infinite regress. There are also logical problems in the form of paradoxes that emanate from the consideration of sets of sets. Given that most prior studies only consider symbols that are classical objects in associative relationships, we argue that there is a need to also consider objects with shifting boundaries and quantum objects. We believe that objects belonging to each of these three classes—that is classical objects, objects with shifting boundaries, and quantum objects—play a role in the workings of the mind.     

Antisnake venom activity of ethanolic seed extract of Strychnos nux vomica Linn

The whole seed extract of S. nux vomica (in low doses) effectively neutralized Daboia russelii venom induced lethal, haemorrhage, defibrinogenating, PLA2 enzyme activity and Naja kaouthia venom induced lethal, cardiotoxic, neurotoxic, PLA2 enzyme activity. The seed extract potentiated polyvalent snake venom antiserum action in experimental animals. An active compound (SNVNF) was isolated and purified by thin layer chromatography and silica gel column chromatography, which effectively antagonised D. russelii venom induced lethal, haemorrhagic, defibrinogenating, oedema, PLA2 enzyme activity and N. kaouthia induced lethal, cardiotoxic, neurotoxic, PLA, enzyme activity. Polyvalent snake venom antiserum action was significantly potentiated by the active compound. Spectral studies revealed it to be a small, straight chain compound containing methyl and amide radicals. Detailed structure elucidation of the compound (SNVNF) is warranted before its clinical trials as a snake venom antagonist.     

Site-selective labeling at Cys302 of aldehyde dehydrogenase unveils a selective mitochondrial stain

A mitochondria-trackable fluorophore, CDy2, selectively labels Cys302 in the active site of mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH2).     

Hypothermic renal perfusion during aortic surgery reduces the presence of lipocalin-2 and preserves renal extraction of dimethylarginines in rats

Cold perfusion through the renal arteries during renal ischemia has been suggested to diminish postoperative renal damage after juxtarenal aortic aneurysm repair. As the kidneys play a key role in dimethylarginine metabolism, which in turn is associated with renal hemodynamics, we hypothesized that the protective effect of cold perfusion is associated with a preserved renal extraction of dimethylarginines. Renal ischemia was induced in three groups of anesthetized Wistar rats (n = 7/group), which underwent suprarenal aortic clamping (45 min) with no perfusion (group 1), renal perfusion with 37°C saline (group 2), or renal perfusion with 4°C saline (group 3), respectively, followed by 90 min of renal reperfusion in all groups. The sham group had no clamping. In group 3 (renal ischemia with cold perfusion), postoperative serum creatinine levels as well as the presence of luminal lipocalin-2 and its associated brush-border damage were lower compared with groups 1 and 2 (P < 0.05). Also, renal extraction of asymmetrical (ADMA) and symmetrical (SDMA) dimethylarginine as well as the arginine/ADMA ratio, which defines the bioavailability of nitric oxide, remained intact in group 3 only (P < 0.04). The arginine/ADMA ratio correlated with cortical flow, lipocalin-2, and creatinine rises. Warm and cold renal perfusion (groups 2 and 3) during ischemia were similarly effective in lowering protein nitrosylation levels, renal leukocyte accumulation, neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) expression in distal tubules, and urine NGAL (P < 0.05). These data support the use of cold renal perfusion during renal ischemia in situations where renal ischemia is inevitable, as it reduces tubular damage and preserves renal extraction of dimethylarginines. Renal perfusion with saline per se during renal ischemia is effective in diminishing renal leukocyte accumulation and oxidative stress.     

Viper and cobra venom neutralization by β-sitosterol and stigmasterol isolated from the root extract of Pluchea indica Less. (Asteraceae)

We reported previously that the methanolic root extract of the Indian medicinal plant Pluchea indica Less. (Asteraceae) could neutralize viper venom-induced action [Alam, M.I., Auddy, B., Gomes, A., 1996. Viper venom neutralization by Indian medicinal plant (Hemidesmus indicus and P. indica) root extracts. Phytother. Res. 10, 58-61]. The present study reports the neutralization of viper and cobra venom by beta-sitosterol and stigmasterol isolated from the root extract of P. indica Less. (Asteraceae). The active fraction (containing the major compound beta-sitosterol and the minor compound stigmasterol) was isolated and purified by silica gel column chromatography and the structure was determined using spectroscopic analysis (EIMS, (1)H NMR, (13)C NMR). Anti-snake venom activity was studied in experimental animals. The active fraction was found to significantly neutralize viper venom-induced lethal, hemorrhagic, defibrinogenation, edema and PLA(2) activity. Cobra venom-induced lethality, cardiotoxicity, neurotoxicity, respiratory changes and PLA(2) activity were also antagonized by the active component. It potentiated commercial snake venom antiserum action against venom-induced lethality in male albino mice. The active fraction could antagonize venom-induced changes in lipid peroxidation and superoxide dismutase activity. This study suggests that beta-sitosterol and stigmasterol may play an important role, along with antiserum, in neutralizing snake venom-induced actions.     

A phylogenetic analysis of Momordica (Cucurbitaceae) in India based on karyo-morphology,nuclear DNA content and rDNA ITS1–5.8S–ITS2 sequences

The infrageneric delimitation of Momordica, a medicinally important genus of Cucurbitaceae, is ill-defined until date. Momordica chromosomes are extremely small and are difficult to stain and visualize because of the dense cytoplasmic background. We have conducted karyomorphometric analysis by EMA method in five Indian Momordica species, and the nuclear genome sizes were estimated by flow cytometry for the first time. The somatic chromosome numbers ranged from 2n = 18 to 56 in the species. We have resolved previously disputed chromosome numbers in M. cymbalaria and M. dioica as 2n = 18 (lowest) and 2n = 56, respectively. Chromosome counts in the other species were re-confirmed as 2n = 22 in M. charantia, 2n = 28 in M. cochinchinensis and 2n = 56 in M. subangulata. The largest genome size was recorded in M. cymbalaria (3.74 pg 2C⁻¹), while the smallest size (0.72 pg 2C⁻¹) was detected in M. charantia var. charantia. The nuclear genome sizes were analysed in comparison to chromosome numbers and total chromosome lengths of the species. Karyomorphometric indices showed comparable symmetric karyotypes in the species except in M. cymbalaria having tendency towards asymmetry. The UPGMA phenogram and principle component analysis based on nuclear DNA contents and karyomorphometric parameters demonstrated interspecies differences, intraspecific distinction within M. charantia varieties and highlighted distinction of M. cymbalaria. This study was further supported by the rDNA ITS sequence-based phylogenetic analysis which revealed the monophyletic origin of the Indian members of Momordica and clarified the intraspecies relationship among the studied members. As a whole, the study brought out new insights on species diversification within the genus Momordica in India and would benefit further studies on biosystematics and plant breeding programmes.

     

Secretome proteins as candidate biomarkers for aggressive thyroid carcinomas

Using proteomics in tandem with bioinformatics, the secretomes of nonaggressive and aggressive thyroid carcinoma (TC) cell lines were analyzed to detect potential biomarkers for tumor aggressiveness. A panel of nine proteins, activated leukocyte cell adhesion molecule (ALCAM/CD166), tyrosine‐protein kinase receptor (AXL), amyloid beta A4 protein, amyloid‐like protein 2, heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein K, phosphoglycerate kinase 1, pyruvate kinase isozyme M2, phosphatase 2A inhibitor (SET), and protein kinase C inhibitor protein 1 (14–3‐3 zeta) was chosen to confirm their expression in TC patients’ sera and tissues. Increased presurgical circulating levels of ALCAM were associated with aggressive tumors (p = 0.04) and presence of lymph node metastasis (p = 0.018). Increased serum AXL levels were associated with extrathyroidal extension (p = 0.027). Furthermore, differential expression of amyloid beta A4 protein, AXL, heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein K, phosphoglycerate kinase 1, pyruvate kinase muscle isozyme M2, and SET was observed in TC tissues compared to benign nodules. Decreased nuclear expression of AXL can detect malignancy with 90% specificity and 100% sensitivity (AUC = 0.995, p < 0.001). In conclusion, some of these proteins show potential for future development as serum and/or tissue‐based biomarkers for TC and warrant further investigation in a large cohort of patients.