FURTHERING INJUSTICES AGAINST WOMEN: GENETIC INFORMATION, MORAL OBLIGATIONS, AND GENDER

The purpose of this paper is to show that a decontextualized approach to ethical issues is not just unhelpful for the decision making process of real, situated human beings, but dangerous. This is so, because by neglecting the context in which people make moral decisions we run the risk of reinforcing or furthering injustices against already disadvantaged groups. To show this, I evaluate three moral obligations that our ability to obtain genetic information has made salient: the duty to obtain genetic information about ourselves, the obligation to inform family members about genetic risks and the duty not to reproduce when we know that there is a high risk of transmitting a serious disease or defect. I will argue here that in ignoring the context in which these moral obligations are put into practice, and in particular the situation of women in our society, those who defend these moral duties might be furthering injustices against women.     

The Torradovirus‐specific RNA2‐ORF1 protein is necessary for plant systemic infection

Tomato apex necrosis virus (ToANV, species Tomato marchitez virus, genus Torradovirus, family Secoviridae) causes a severe tomato disease in Mexico. One distinctive feature of torradoviruses compared with other members of the family Secoviridae is the presence of an additional open reading frame (ORF) in genomic RNA2 (denominated RNA2‐ORF1), located upstream of ORF2. RNA2‐ORF2 encodes a polyprotein that is processed into a putative movement protein and three capsid proteins (CPs). The RNA2‐ORF1 protein has homologues only amongst other torradoviruses and, so far, no function has been associated with it. We used recombinant and mutant ToANV clones to investigate the role of the RNA2‐ORF1 protein in various aspects of the virus infection cycle. The lack of a functional RNA2‐ORF1 resulted in an inability to systemically infect Nicotiana benthamiana and tomato plants, but both positive‐ and negative‐strand RNA1 and RNA2 accumulated locally in agroinfiltrated areas in N. benthamiana plants, indicating that the RNA2‐ORF1 mutants were replication competent. Furthermore, a mutant with a deletion in RNA2‐ORF1 was competent for virion formation and cell‐to‐cell movement in the cells immediately surrounding the initial infection site. However, immunological detection of the ToANV CPs in the agroinfiltrated areas showed that this mutant was not detected in the sieve elements even if the surrounding parenchymatic cells were ToANV positive, suggesting a role for the RNA2‐ORF1 protein in processes occurring prior to phloem uploading, including efficient spread in inoculated leaves.     

Competitive index in mixed infections: a sensitive and accurate assay for the genetic analysis of Pseudomonas syringae–plant interactions

Mixed infections have been broadly applied to the study of bacterial pathogens in animals. However, the application of mixed infection-based methods in plant pathogens has been very limited. An important factor for this limitation is the different dynamics that mixed infections have been reported to show in the different types of models. Reports in systemic animal infections have shown that any bacterium has the same probability of multiplying within a mixed infection than in a single infection. However, in plant pathogens, bacterial growth in a mixed infection does not seem to reflect growth in a single infection, as growth interference takes place between the co-inoculated strains. Here we show that growth interference in mixed infection between different Pseudomonas syringae strains is not intrinsic to growth within a plant host, but dependent on the dose of inoculation. We also show that the minimal inoculation dose required to avoid interference depends on the aggressiveness of the pathogen as well as the type of virulence factor that differentiates the co-inoculated strains. This study establishes the basis for the use of mixed infection-based applications to the study of phytopathogenic bacteria. Analysis of the virulence of a type III effector mutant and an hrp regulatory mutant illustrate the increased accuracy and sensitivity of competitive index assays vs. regular growth assays. Several applications of this assay are addressed, and potential implications for this and other mixed infection-based methods are discussed.     

Morphological and Anatomical Studies of Linaria species from South-west Spain: Fruits

A morphological and anatomical study of fruits of 24 taxa ofLinaria Miller from south-west Spain has been made. Followingexamination of these species, by scanning electron and lightmicroscopy, five morphological types are established relatingto hair types, symmetry and dehiscence of capsules. A key tothe different species or groups of species is provided. Finally,dehiscence mechanisms are discussed briefly. Copyright 1999Annals of Botany Company Pericarp, hairs, dehiscence, SEM, Antirrhineae.     

Morphological and Anatomical Studies of Linaria Species from South-west Spain: Seeds

Seeds of 24 taxa of Linaria from south-west Spain were examinedwith a scanning electron microscope and light microscope. Basedon seed features such as shape, surface ornamentation and cellshape, seven morphological types were recognized. Seeds of thedifferent types are described, illustrated and compared. A keyto distinguish the different species or groups of species isprovided. Copyright 1999 Annals of Botany Company Seed-coat, SEM, anatomy, Scrophulariaceae, Antirrhineae, Linaria .     

CONSUMER ATTITUDES AND OPINIONS TOWARD FUNCTIONAL FOODS: A FOCUS GROUP STUDY

Acceptance of foods with specific health characteristics depends largely on the consumers' opinion. The objective of this work was to investigate Spanish consumers' opinions, attitudes and beliefs regarding functional foods in general, and one of the most popular foods, yogurt, in particular. Six consumer focus group interviews were conducted, involving a total of 59 participants. Each group profile was chosen to either complement or contrast the other groups according to previously established criteria (gender, age and educational level). The youngest consumers (18–30 years old) proved, in general, to have a fairly negative attitude toward these types of products, although this attitude varied according to the type of food. For the consumers participating in this study, the most acceptable functional foods were low-fat foods and some fermented dairy products. Purchase and consumption of yogurt were more dependent on its sensorial qualities and its price than on the nutritional information printed on the label.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

The influence of attitudes, beliefs and opinions on food choice and purchase is specially important in the acceptance of some types of foods (organic or ecological, genetically modified or functional) that are presented to the consumer as a possible alternative to the conventional foods. The application of focus groups can help not only in explaining consumer behavior, but also in designing more effective nutritional education rules and products that satisfy consumer needs and expectations.     

Determination of ploidy and nuclear DNA content in populations of Atriplex halimus (Chenopodiaceae)

Nuclear DNA contents were determined by flow cytometry for 20 populations of the perennial C₄ shrub Atriplex halimus L. (Chenopodiaceae) originating from the Mediterranean basin and Fuerteventura (Canary Islands). Two populations were also analysed for chromosome number: one (from Ibiza, Spain), with a 2C nuclear DNA content of 2.40 pg, was shown to be diploid (2 n  = 2 x  = 18), whilst the other (from Sicily, Italy), with 5.11 pg, was tetraploid (2 n  = 2 x  = 36). With respect to nuclear DNA content, two groups of populations were detected, diploids with 2.40–2.44 pg and tetraploids with 4.77–5.13 pg. The diploid populations were mainly from the western Mediterranean (Spain and France) and Fuerteventura, whereas tetraploids were generally, but not exclusively, from more arid areas in North Africa and the eastern Mediterranean. In general, the diploid and tetraploid populations corresponded to the subspecies halimus and schweinfurthii , respectively. For certain populations having morphologies intermediate between those considered typical of these two subspecies, nuclear DNA contents showed them to be tetraploid. There was significant variation in nuclear DNA content among the tetraploid populations, with greater values in the more easterly populations.  © 2005 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 147 , 441−448.