Parasitism of the deer ked,Lipoptena cervi,on the moose,Alces alces,in eastern Finland

The deer ked, Lipoptena cervi L. (Diptera: Hippoboscidae), is an ectoparasitic fly that spread to Finland in the early 1960s from the southeast across the Soviet border. It is currently a common parasite of the moose, Alces alces (Artiodactyla: Cervidae), in the southern part of the country and its area of distribution is gradually spreading to Finnish Lapland, where it will come into contact with another potential cervid host, the semi‐domesticated reindeer, Rangifer tarandus tarandus. The aim of this study was to determine the intensity of deer ked parasitism on the moose in eastern Finland. Whole skins of 23 moose were examined for the presence of deer keds, which were extracted and their total numbers estimated. The intensity of deer ked parasitism was correlated to the age, sex, skin area and anatomical region of the host. Bulls had the highest total number of keds (10616 ± 1375) and the highest deer ked density (35.7 ± 4.4 keds/dm² of skin). Cows had a higher total number of keds than calves (3549 ± 587 vs. 1730 ± 191), but ked densities on cows and calves were roughly equal (11.8 ± 1.7 vs. 9.4 ± 1.1 keds/dm² of skin). The density of keds was highest on the anterior back, followed by the posterior back, front limbs, abdomen, head and hind limbs. The sex ratio of deer keds was close to equal (male : female, 1.0 : 1.1). After they had consumed blood, male keds were heavier than females. As the total numbers and densities of deer keds were higher than reported previously on moose or for any other louse fly species, the effects of parasitism on the health of the host species should be determined.     

Influence of geographical extent on typology- and model-based assessments of taxonomic completeness of river macroinvertebrates

1. River InVertebrate Prediction and Classification System (RIVPACS)‐type predictive models are increasingly used to assess the biological condition of freshwaters, but management schemes may also be based on a priori groupings of similar water bodies (typologies) to control for natural variation in biota. The two approaches may lead to disagreements of the biological status of a site, depending on, for example, the spatial scale at which assessments are conducted. 2. We used data from 96 reference and 134 potentially impacted sites from Western and Central Finland to compare RIVPACS‐type models and a simple size‐based typology of rivers for the assessment of taxonomic completeness (the quotient of the Observed‐to‐Expected number of predicted taxa, O / E) of riffle macroinvertebrates. We specifically examined how geographical extent influences bioassessment performance (accuracy, precision and sensitivity to detect impact) of the two approaches. To fully examine the behaviour of the O / E‐index with the two approaches at differing spatial scales, we performed all assessments with a full range of thresholds for predicted taxa occurrence probabilities (p_t from 0+ to 0.9). 3. Both approaches performed consistently better than the corresponding null models. At the larger extent (i.e. assessment encompassing the whole study area), the RIVPACS‐approach performed in all aspects better than the typology‐approach. However, at the smaller extent (i.e. regional assessments) the RIVPACS‐type models and the typologies showed similar accuracy to predict the actual fauna (mean E), similar precision (SD) of cross‐validated O / E and similar sensitivity to detect sites with human impairment. 4. SD(O / E) decreased (i.e. precision increased) consistently with increasing p_t. However, both approaches were most sensitive at intermediate p_t:s (c. 0.2–0.6) when taxa with low predicted occurrence probabilities were excluded. 5. Our results show that RIVPACS‐type predictive models are less susceptible to variations in spatial scale, whereas the performance of a priori typologies increases with decreasing spatial extent. Thus, RIVPACS‐type models are more efficient for large‐scale bioassessments, but at restricted spatial scales, or with an otherwise biologically meaningful stratification, simple a priori classifications can be equally useful for the assessment of taxonomic completeness of river macroinvertebrates.     

Inferring the minimum pH of streams from macroinvertebrates using weighted averaging regression and calibration

1. Data on macroinvertebrates and stream chemistry were collected from sixty-four streams in Finland. Weighted averaging (WA) regression and calibration models were constructed to infer the minimum pH of streams from their invertebrate assemblages. The purpose was to develop an instrument for biological assessment and monitoring of stream acidification. The WA method was compared with simpler approaches, based on qualitative invertebrate data and pH tolerance limits, that are widely used.
2. Performance of the two approaches was assessed in terms of correlation between the inferred and observed minimum pH within the 'training set', and in terms of root mean squared differences (predicted – observed) (RMSEP) estimated by cross-validation or bootstrap resampling techniques. The models were further tested using independent data from the literature representative of a wide geographical range.
3. The predictive power of the WA models was reasonable (RMSEP 0.40–0.44 pH units) in the training set and consistently better than that of the tolerance limit method. In contrast to the latter, the WA models were able to infer a minimum pH above 5.5, suggesting they could detect the early stages of acidification.
4. The WA models performed better than the tolerance limit method in inferring pH from the independent literature, further demonstrating the superiority and generality of the WA approach.
5. The weighted averaging technique could be an effective and widely applicable tool for contemporary biological monitoring and assessment using aquatic invertebrates.     

The Effect of 6-Benzylaminopurine on the Starch Metabolism of Stellaria media

The effect of 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) was studied by measuring the amylase activity of leaf extracts and the starch content of chloroplasts in Stellaria media-plants cultivated for five days in solutions containing different quantities of BAP. Small amounts of BAP decreased amylase activity in weak-growing plants. In strong-growing ones the effect was variable. However, in all experiments very high amount of this growth regulator caused a great increase in amylase activity which was accompanied by a relatively high concentration of starch in the chloroplasts. The induction of amylase activity was thus not high enough to diminish the starch content. This is supposed to be due to the lack of a sink organ since the growth of roots and shoots was greatly inhibited in concentrated BAP-solutions (10^-5M or more). In these cases the plants usually died during the first week. In some cases small amounts of BAP increased the growth of S. media, and high concentrations inhibited it causing characteristic morphological changes, such as creeping growth pattern, small, thick leaves and the turning up of the leaf margins. Benzylaminopurine also caused increased resistance to aging, especially in low concentrations (10^–7–10^–6M).     

PERCEIVED EATING DIFFICULTIES AND PREFERENCES FOR VARIOUS TEXTURES OF RAW AND COOKED CARROTS IN YOUNG AND ELDERLY SUBJECTS

The aim of the study was to determine how those texture attributes that elderly people find difficult to eat are related to their preferences for different modifications of carrot textures. This study was conducted with same methods in Finland and in the United Kingdom (UK). Trained sensory panels in both countries described sensory profiles of a range of carrot samples with same glossary of texture terms. The texture of carrot samples was manipulated using different preparation and cooking methods. Based on the Principal Component Analysis (PCA), boiled and puréed samples were perceived as soft, wet, pulpy and smooth, whereas raw samples were dry, brittle, rough, crispy and crunchy. Two age groups were used for the consumer tests: a young adult group aged 23 to 40 years, mean 32 (Finland) and 33 (UK) and an elderly group aged over 60 years, mean 75 (Finland) and 76 (UK). Both the elderly and young adult respondents considered samples as difficult to eat if they needed a long chewing time, were crunchy, hard, brittle, dry, rough or sharp, such as raw slices and coarsely grated samples. On the other hand, slimy, wet, smooth, soft and pulpy samples, such as boiled carrots and purée, were considered as easy-to-eat. The young adults liked more difficult textures such as rough, crispy, crunchy and hard than did the elderly respondents, but the easiest textures were not liked by either age group. Subjects with dental deficiencies liked easier textures more than those fully dentate.     

Evaluation of approaches for measuring taxonomic completeness of lake profundal macroinvertebrate assemblages

1. Benthic macroinvertebrates (MI) are commonly used to assess freshwater ecosystems with the reference condition approach. Such assessments necessitate control for natural community variation, either by categorical typologies or by predictive models that have been widely and successfully developed for running water biota but not previously for lake profundal invertebrates. 2. We evaluated four modelling techniques [multivariate regression tree (MRT), limiting environmental differences, nonparametric multiplicative regression (NPMR) and River Invertebrate Prediction And Classification System (RIVPACS) and the operative Finnish lake typology for assessing taxonomic completeness (observed‐to‐expected number of taxa, O/E) of profundal MI assemblages. We used data from 74 and 33 minimally disturbed reference lake basins for calibration and validation of the approaches, respectively, and 72 test basins subject to various anthropogenic pressures to evaluate sensitivity to detect impact. Either all predicted taxa (threshold probability of capture P_t = 0+) or only those predicted to be captured with ≥0.25 probability were used to calculate O/E. 3. With P_t = 0.25, all four modelling approaches were accurate (mean O/E = 0.966–1.053) but imprecise (SD of O/E = 0.279–0.304) in predicting the fauna actually observed in validation sites. All models were subtly more precise than a null model (mean 1.038, SD 0.343) or the typology (1.046, 0.327). The taxon‐specific NPMR model was slightly more precise than the other three models based on site groupings. 4. The O/E values correlated relatively weakly (r = 0.55–0.86) among the approaches, which thus produced contrasting lake‐specific assessments, despite their seemingly comparable performances. Indeed, typology, suggesting that MI assemblages were impaired in 56% of test sites, was more sensitive than the other approaches (26–46%) as an indicator of human‐induced deterioration. However, this greater ostensible sensitivity seemed to be biased, as lake morphometry, a main driver of natural community variation, remained uncontrolled by the typology. 5. Generally, our exercise illustrates the inconclusiveness of the common validation criteria for the assessment methods. The apparent poor predictability of the profundal fauna, irrespective of the method, may partly stem from large observation error, which could be alleviated by more intensive sampling. However, instead of an O/E‐taxa index, some other metric encompassing quantitative aspects might be preferable for assessing these species‐poor communities.     

Egg size and composition in an ageing capital breeder – consequences for offspring performance

1. Egg size is often used as a proxy of egg quality although size and composition may vary, e.g. in insects egg size usually decreases as female ages. Whether this decrease in size reflects reduced concentrations of essential nutrients such as lipids and proteins of eggs laid by ageing females, or does reduced size per se explain often observed lower fitness of later laid eggs is poorly explored. 2. Egg properties were compared with fitness parameters of offspring laid on the first and fourth night during the oviposition period of a capital breeding moth, Cleorodes lichenaria (Hufnagel). The study aim was to explore whether decreased egg size is caused by decreased provisioning into later laid eggs measured as egg protein and lipid concentration, and whether it results in lower fitness of later laid offspring. 3. The fresh and dry weight of eggs decreased over the oviposition period, but the protein and lipid concentration remained constant. Survival of larvae was lower among the fourth night laid offspring on a low quality host Parmelia sulcata Taylor compared to a high quality host Ramalina fraxinea (L.) Ach. No differences were observed in egg fertility or hatchability, neonate survival without food and pupal mass between the offspring produced on different nights. 4. Decreased survival of offspring produced later was rather attributable to absolute provisioning (i.e. lower weight of eggs) than relative provisioning (i.e. decreased concentrations of nutrients in eggs). It is argued that lower survival of later laid smaller eggs on low quality diet is likely attributable to physical and chemical characteristics of host lichens and/or physical properties of tiny neonate larvae.     

Seasonal shifts in the diet of lake zooplankton revealed by phospholipid fatty acid analysis

1. We analysed the phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) profiles of seston and of the dominant zooplankter, Daphnia longispina, through the open water period in a small, dystrophic lake to investigate seasonal variation in the diet of Daphnia. Phytoplankton, heterotrophic bacteria, green sulphur bacteria and methane‐oxidizing bacteria (MOB) were all present in the water column of the lake, and previous studies have indicated that vertically migrating Daphnia can exploit all these potential food sources. 2. For adult Daphnia, although there was some correspondence between the PLFA profile of Daphnia and the concurrent seston PLFA profile, strongest correlations were between the Daphnia PLFA profile and those of potential food sources determined 7 days earlier. This interval presumably reflects the time it takes for adult Daphnia to turn over their fatty acid pool. 3. A correlation between the concentration of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in the epi‐ and metalimnion and measured primary production indicated that, within the total PLFA fraction, PUFAs can be useful biomarkers for phytoplankton in food‐web studies. Algal PUFAs contributed appreciably to total PLFAs in adult Daphnia during spring and summer, but less so in autumn. 4. Daphnia in the lake actually reached their highest biomass in autumn, when methanotrophic activity was also highest, and the highest magnitude of MOB‐specific PLFAs was recorded in both adult and juvenile Daphnia. A strong relationship existed between δ¹³C values of Daphnia reported previously and the proportion of MOB‐specific PLFAs in Daphnia. Autumnal mixing evidently stimulates bacterial oxidation of methane from the hypolimnion, and exploitation of the methanotrophic bacteria sustains a high Daphnia population late in the season. 5. Our results show that the PLFA composition of freshwater zooplankton like Daphnia corresponds rather well to that of their in situ diet of phytoplankton and bacteria, with a lag period of around 1 week in the case of adult animals. The PLFA profile of seston revealed the dominant available food sources, and relating these to the Daphnia PLFA profile provided insights into seasonal changes in Daphnia diet.