Taste receptor activity and feeding behaviour reveal mechanisms of white spruce natural resistance to Eastern spruce budworm Choristoneura fumiferana

The pattern of feeding of Eastern spruce budworm Choristoneura fumiferana (Clem.) (Lepidoptera, Tortricidae) is compared on foliage from white spruce Picea glauca (Moench) Voss. (Pinaceae) trees previously determined to be susceptible and resistant to defoliation by budworm. No differences are observed in electrophysiological responses from taste sensilla to aqueous extracts of the two foliage types, nor is there a preference for either extract type in a choice test. Acetone extracts from the two foliage types are both preferred to a control sucrose solution, although neither elicits a preference relative to the other. These results suggest that there is no difference in phagostimulatory power of internal leaf contents of the two foliage types. Longer‐term observation of feeding behaviour in a no‐choice situation shows no difference in meal duration, confirming the lack of difference in phagostimulatory power. However, on average, intermeal intervals are twice as long on the resistant foliage, leading to an overall lower food consumption during the assay. This result suggests an anti‐digestive or toxic effect of the resistant foliage that slows behaviour and limits food intake. Previous research has shown that waxes of the resistant foliage deter initiation of feeding by the spruce budworm and that this foliage contains higher levels of tannins and monoterpenes. The data suggest that the resistant foliage contains a post‐ingestive second line of defence against the spruce budworm.     

Pollination biology of the Proteaceae in Australia and southern Africa

Proteaceae are most diverse in southern Africa and Australia, especially in the south-western portions of these regions. Most genera have some species in flower at all times of the year, although generally there is a preponderance of species that flower between late winter and early summer. The one genus that is an exception to this generalization is Banksia, which either has approximately the same percentage of species in flower at various times of the year (southwestern Australia) or peaks in autumn (southeastern Australia). Within particular communities, opportunities for hybridization among congeneric species are minimized by staggered flowering times, different pollen vectors and/or various incompatibility mechanisms. Birds, mammals and arthropods have been identified as visitors to the inflorescences of many Proteaceae. The most common avian visitors to the majority of genera in Australia are honeyeaters, although lorikeets, silvereyes and approximately 40 other species sometimes may be important. Sugarbirds and sunbirds are seen most frequently at inflorescences of Protea, Leucospermum and Mimetes in southern Africa, although they rarely visit other genera. In most cases, avian visitors forage in a manner that permits the acquisition and transfer of pollen. Limited evidence supports the hypothesis that birds are selective in their choice of inflorescences, responding to morphological and/or colour changes and usually visiting those inflorescences that offer the greatest nectar rewards. Arthropods may be equally selective, although it is possible that only the larger moths, bees and beetles are important pollinators, even for those plant species that rely entirely on arthropods for pollen transfer. Mammals are pollen vectors for some Proteaceae, especially those that have geoflorous and/or cryptic inflorescences. In Australia, small marsupials may be the most important mammalian pollinators, although rodents fill this niche in at least some southern African habitats. All but two genera of Proteaceae are hermaphroditic and protandrous, the exceptions being the dioecious southern African genera Aulax and Leucadendron. For hermaphroditic species, the timing of visits by animals to inflorescences is such that they not only acquire pollen from freshly opened flowers but also brush against pollen presenters and stigmas of others that have lost self-pollen and become receptive. Birds and insects (and probably mammals) generally forage in such a way as to facilitate both outcrossing and selfing. Some species are self-compatible, although many require outcrossing if viable seed is to be formed. Regardless of which animals are the major pollen vectors, fruit set is low relative to the number of flowers available, especially in Australian habitats. Functional andromonoecy of the majority of flowers is advanced as the major cause of poor fruit set. The pollination biology and breeding systems of Australian and southern African Proteaceae resemble one another in many ways, partly because of their common ancestry, but also due to convergence. Divergence is less obvious, apart from the dichotomy between dioecious and hermaphroditic genera, and differences in the levels of seed set for Australian and African species. Future studies should concentrate on identifying the most important pollinators for various Proteaceae, the manner in which their visits are integrated with floral development and factors responsible for limiting fruit set.     

Quantitation of malaria sporozoites transmitted in vitro during salivation by wild Afrotropical Anopheles

Abstract. The malaria transmission potential of wild, infective Anopheles from western Kenya was evaluated by determining the number of sporozoites transmitted in vitro by salivation when their mouthparts were inserted into capillary tubes containing either sucrose or blood. With sucrose, 86.6% of 102 infective Anopheles transmitted a geometric mean (GM) of 3.84 sporozoites (range 1–34). With blood, 23.1% of 104 infective Anopheles , tested on the day of collection, transmitted a GM of 2.30 sporozoites (range 1–117). For Anopheles held 5 days postcapture before testing with blood, 53.6% of 56 transmitted a GM of 6.04 sporozoites (range 1–420). Transmitting Anopheles contained significantly more salivary gland sporozoites than non-transmitters. No significant differences were detected between Anopheles gambiae Giles sensu lato and Anopheles funestus Giles in sporozoite transmission by individuals with sporozoites in their salivary glands.
Sporozoites were detected microscopically in the salivary duct from heads in 80.3% of 117 infective Anopheles (GM=11.2, range 1–71). Sporozoite detection in mosquito heads by ELISA was 25% less efficient than microscopic detection.
Over 98% of the infective Anopheles transmitted less than twenty-five sporozoites. Transmitted sporozoites represented only about 3% of the total sporozoites in the salivary glands suggesting that sporozoite transmission may be restricted to sporozoites in the salivary duct at the time of feeding. Results are discussed in relation to anti-sporozoite vaccine development.     

Effect of pea bacterial blight (Pseudomonas syringae pv. pisi) on the yield of spring sown combining peas (Pisum sativum)

Field trials to examine the effect of pea bacterial blight (Pseudomonas syringae pv. pisi) (Psp) on the yield of combining peas were carried out at five sites (HRI Wellesbourne, ADAS Rosemaund, ADAS Terrington, PGRO, SASA East Craigs) in the UK in 1990, 1991 and 1992. Healthy seed, cv. Solara, and seed naturally infected with Psp Race 2 was sown in large plots (c. 200 m²) in the open or under nets to prevent bird damage by pigeons. Despite relatively low disease severity levels (< 15% leaf area) and separation by at least 12 m of cv. Consort (resistant to Race 2) between plots there was considerable spread of disease into plots sown with healthy seed. Regression analysis demonstrated a significant relationship between yield and disease. Of the disease measurements examined, disease severity on the leaves (stipules) at growth stage 208 was found to be the best predictor of yield. A model containing environmental and bird damage terms, in addition to disease, suggested that a yield loss of 0.98 t/ha would be expected for a disease severity score of 1, equivalent to 5% leaf area affected, at growth stage 208.