The occurrence and frequency of 2n pollen in 2x, 4x,and 6x wild,tuber-bearing Solanum species from Mexico,and Central and South America

Summary The occurrence of 2n pollen-producing plants was investigated in 187 plant introductions (PIs) of 38 wild species of tuber-bearing Solanum. These 2x, 4x, and 6x species are from Mexico, and Central and South America. The determination of 2n pollen-producing plants was conducted using acetocarmine glycerol. Plants with more than 1% large-size pollen were regarded as 2n pollen-producing plants. 2n pollen-producing plants were identified in the following species: 10 out of 12 Mexican 2x species, seven of nine South American 2x species, seven of seven Mexican and Central American 4x species, five of five South American 4x species, and five of five Mexican 6x species. The frequency of 2n pollen-producing plants varied among species at the same ploidy level, but the range of frequency, generally between 2 and 10% among species, was similar over different ploidy levels. The general occurrence of 2n pollen in both 2x and polyploid species, which are evolutionarily related, is evidence that the mode of polyploidization in tuber-bearing Solanums is sexual polyploidization. Furthermore, the frequencies of 2n pollen-producing plants in autogamous disomic polyploid species were not markably different from those of their related diploid species. It is thought that the frequent occurrence of 2n gametes with autogamy tends to disturb the fertility and consequently reduce fitness of polyploids. Thus, we propose that the breeding behavior of polyploids and the occurrence of 2n gametes may be genetically balanced in order to conserve high fitness in polyploid species in tuberbearing Solanum.Paper No. 3114 from the Laboratory of Genetics. Research supported by the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences; International Potato Center; USDA, SEA, CGRO 84-CRCR-1-1389; and Frito Lay, Inc.     

大别山区黑沟绿太阳鱼种群的形态特征研究

绿太阳鱼是2015年4月在大别山区淠河流域支流中新发现的入侵鱼类。利用2015年7月从黑沟中采集的78尾绿太阳鱼标本，对该物种的形态特征进行了详细测量和分析。结果发现绿太阳鱼种群内的形态相似性较高，但还存在一定的形态差异。相比性别，年龄是造成这种形态差异的主要原因。雄性从Ⅰ龄开始出现显著的形态分化，而雌性差异并不显著。这种形态学的差异完全符合雄鱼筑巢护卵的习性，具体表现在雄鱼头部指标（D1-2、D2-3、眼间距、眼后头长、头长）、臀鳍附近指标（D5-7、D5-8）、背鳍基部指标（D6-8）和尾柄处指标（D9-10）增大。同时相比Ⅰ龄以上的雄鱼，雌鱼和0龄雄鱼的尾柄指标（D8-10、D8-9）较长，身体更适于流水环境。这种雌雄体型上的变化，将有助于雄鱼占领溪流环境中的静水区（深潭），而雌鱼和0龄鱼占领流水区（急滩、湍流），这为该种群适应山区溪流的水文环境，合理分配生态位提供了便利条件，同时也使其对大别山区其他鱼类具有较大的生态危害潜力。     

Assortative mating preferences between colour morphs of the endemic Lake Tanganyika cichlid genus Tropheus

Female mate preferences effectuate reproductive isolation among and sexual selection within species. Both mechanisms have been associated with the diversification and speciation of cichlid species flocks of the East African Great Lakes. In Lake Tanganyika, the endemic genus Tropheus has diversified into >100 geographic colour morphs. Although distributed allopatrically at present, water level fluctuations have repeatedly displaced and merged the benthic, rock-dwelling populations. Tests for assortative mating were performed to explore the potential for reproductive isolation between morphs in secondary contact, and to assess the importance of sexual selection for the diversification of this group. In contrast to other haplochromine cichlids, Tropheus is a sexually monochromatic, territorial and maternally mouthbrooding fish, which establishes temporary pair bonds prior to spawning. Female mate preference trials involved two-way choices between a homotypic and a heterotypic male and were conducted on allopatric populations of red and blue morphs from the southern part of Lake Tanganyika. Female affiliation time near each male’s compartment did not predict the mate preferences subsequently expressed in unrestrained interactions after removal of the compartment separators (spawning, pseudospawning and courtship). Consequently, mate preferences were inferred from unrestrained interactions with one test male at a time in replicate observation sessions. Of the 23 females tested, 13 courted, pseudospawned or spawned with the homotypic male, one blue female courted a red male, and nine females expressed no sexual motivation. The assortative mate preferences in the experiments (P < 0.01) suggest that colour differentiation between Tropheus populations can effectuate reproductive isolation, and is consistent with the notion that sexual selection contributed to the diversification of the genus. Guest editors: T. Wilke, R. V?in?l? & F. Riedel Patterns and Processes of Speciation in Ancient Lakes: Proceedings of the Fourth Symposium on Speciation in Ancient Lakes, Berlin, Germany, September 4–8, 2006     

The relative importance of orange spot coloration and total length of males in female guppy mate preference

Female mate choice by multiple male traits is an important current topic in animal behavior. However, the relative importance among the multiple cues in female choice is not explored in most cases. Female guppies Poecilia reticulata use both the color saturation of orange spots and the total length of males as mate choice criteria. In the present study, we used digitally modified video playbacks to examine the relative importance of these two male traits to female mate preferences. We initially examined the effective difference in the color saturation of orange spots as well as that in total length between two stimulus male images. Females only showed a strong preference for a bright male image (compared to the dull image) when the difference in color saturation was large (91% versus 25%). Conversely, females only exhibited a preference for larger size when they were presented a choice between two relatively small male images (total length 26.0 mm versus 23.0 mm). When two male images in which both the two traits were modified were presented to females, they prioritized male images possessing higher color saturation of orange spots, indicating the color saturation of male orange spots to be a more important factor than the total length in their mate choice. The color saturation of orange spots may convey more reliable information about the males to the females than their total lengths. These findings imply that females may rank multiple male criteria depending on relative benefits or costs derived from their mate choice based on each criterion.     

The relationship between ecological segregation and sexual body size dimorphism in large herbivores

Ecological segregation (sexual differences in diet or habitat use) in large herbivores has been intimately linked to sexual body size dimorphism, and may affect both performance and survival of the sexes. However, no one has tested comparatively whether segregation occurs at a higher frequency among more dimorphic species. To test this comparatively, data on sex-specific diet, habitat use and body size of 40 species of large herbivores were extracted from the literature. The frequency of ecological segregation was higher among more dimorphic herbivores; however, this was only significant for browsers. This provides the first evidence that segregation is more common among more dimorphic species. The comparative evidence supported the nutritional-needs hypothesis over the incisor breadth hypothesis, as there was no difference in frequency of segregation between seasons with high and low resource levels, and since segregation was also evident among browsers. Whether the absence of a correlation between ecological segregation and level of sexual body size dimorphism for intermediate feeders and grazers is due to biological differences relative to browsers or to the fact that the monomorphic species included in the analysis were all browsers is discussed. Received: 18 August 1999 / Accepted: 31 January 2000     

Effects of a mass mortality event on gorgonian reproduction

The impact of a disturbance is normally measured in terms of its effects on adult mortality, whilst the less obvious impact on reproductive biology is generally ignored. Although previous studies have contributed to understanding the effects of a mass mortality of gorgonians in 1999 at NW Mediterranean Sea, none of them have considered its impact on reproduction. The goal of this study was to determine the impact of mass mortality events on the reproduction of the gorgonian Paramuricea clavata, and examine the effect of the damage 1 year (June 2000) and 2 years (June 2001) after the event. The reproductive parameters of female colonies were more affected than those of males. In female colonies that were moderately or severely damaged, the proportion of fertile polyps decreased by about 22–35%, whilst in the worst affected males there was only a 12% decrease. Female colonies showed a progressive decrease in gonadal biomass with increasing damage to a maximum reduction of 73–75% of oocyte production observed in colonies with >33% injury. In contrast, in males, the gonadal biomass decreased rapidly for colonies with 5% of injured surface, with a reduction in spermary production of 49–64%. The same pattern of decrease in gonadal output compared to the extent of the injury was observed in 2001, two years after the mass mortality event. This indicated that the observed pattern was a response to the extent of the injury rather than a direct effect of the event. These severe effects on the reproduction of the red gorgonian species have implications for the recovery of affected populations in the long-term. This study demonstrated that an evaluation of the impact over different demographic parameters is needed to understand all the consequences of these disturbances.     

Univariate and multivariate methods for sexing the sacrum

Metric data on 200 sacra of known sex, age and race are analyzed to determine the usefulness of conventional observations for determining sex in this bone. Results of the univariate analysis show that significant sex differences in the sacrum involve primarily the top portion of the bone for both whites and blacks. However, measurements of curvature are important sex differences in the sample of blacks. A new index relating the S1 body to sacral breadth is proposed as more useful in classifying the bones by sex than indices involving other measurements. Discriminant analysis shows that the sample of whites can be analyzed significantly better by this method than by using an index. The choice of univariate or multivariate method must depend on the condition of the bone, and will be influenced to some extent by the race from which the sample is drawn.     

Sexual dimorphism in the growth of the cranium

The major sexual dimorphisms in body size appear at puberty but, by then, 95% of the growth of the cranium is completed. As sexual dimorphism in the cranium is as great as for other parts of the body, this suggests that it must appear at an earlier age, and that cranium/body size ratios for the two sexes will vary during growth. Results from a longitudinal study of Montreal children are used to investigate this phenomenon. The effect is expressed quantitatively by proportional growth and growth velocity curves, based on the final size of boys, which show that the dimorphism indeed makes an early appearance. The data are also analyzed on an age scale relative to the ages of peak growth velocity in stature, derived from the individual growth curves. This shows that although there is a minor pubertal spurt in growth for the external cranial dimensions of boys, it contributes relatively little to the final dimorphism in cranial size. To summarize this aspect of growth, an index of cephalization is calculated: head length × head width/stature. Cross-sectional standards for the change of the mean index with age show a linear decline for boys and girls until puberty, with a constant difference between them. After puberty, the index becomes equal in the two sexes. Individual development curves for the index are however not linear.     

Sexual dimorphism in the tooth-crown diameters of the deciduous teeth

Mesiodistal and buccolingual crown dimensions of the right deciduous teeth of 133 white children were analyzed for information on sexual dimorphism and sex discrimination using discriminant analysis. Even though consistent differences were found for only 15 out of 20 paired measurements, five of them significant at p = 0.05 or better, discriminant analysis showed the possibility of correctly sexing up to 75% of the juvenile sample, using a maximum of seven deciduous teeth.     

Nucleotide pool changes in coelomic cells (eleocytes) of the polychaete Nereis virens during sexual maturation

Eleocytes (a type of coelomic cell) of the polychaete Nereis virens can store large amounts of adenine nucleotides at certain times. Since eleocytes have specific functions related to gametogenesis, we tested whether the presence of these large nucleotide stores in eleocytes is specific to gender or related to specific events during gametogenesis. Nucleotide pools in eleocytes isolated at different stages of sexual maturation from N. virens were analysed using high-performance liquid chromatography. Eleocytes from immature and male animals had extremely high concentrations of both AMP and ADP (each > 10 μmol/ml of packed cell volume). In eleocytes from male animals, the high nucleotide stores were maintained throughout the maturation phase and decreased at a late stage, while in female animals the nucleotides were degraded at an early stage of maturation. In male eleocytes, the decrease in the adenine nucleotide pool may be the result of its conversion to inosine which is then released by the eleocytes and reutilized by male germ cells for nucleic acid biosynthesis, as has been suggested previously. Our study shows that the time of degradation of the adenine nucleotide pool coincides with the period of spermatogonia proliferation which involves intense nucleic acid synthesis. ATP levels (0.4–1.5 μmol/ml packed cell volume) and the guanine nucleotide pool (GTP+GDP+GMP; 0.08–0.18 μmol/ml packed cell volume) were similar in both sexes, did not change during germ cell development and were decreased only in eleocytes from prespawning females. The GTP/GDP ratios were initially higher (up to 14) in eleocytes from females compared to ratios in eleocytes from immature (4–9) and male animals (up to 8), and decreased during the maturation phase of the animals. GTP levels were correlated with those of ATP; this correlation was much closer in eleocytes from females than from males. The results further support the hypothesis that the adenine nucleotide stores in the eleocytes are maintained as a supply of purine precursors for the growing germ cells.