Post-pruning shoot growth increases fruit abscission and reduces stem carbohydrates and yield in macadamia

Background and Aims

There is good evidence for deciduous trees that competition for carbohydrates from shoot growth accentuates early fruit abscission and reduces yield but the effect for evergreen trees is not well defined. Here, whole-tree tip-pruning at anthesis is used to examine the effect of post-pruning shoot development on fruit abscission in the evergreen subtropical tree macadamia (Macadamia integrifolia, M. integrifolia × tetraphylla). Partial-tree tip-pruning is also used to test the localization of the effect.

Methods

In the first experiment (2005/2006), all branches on trees were tip-pruned at anthesis, some trees were allowed to re-shoot (R treatment) and shoots were removed from others (NR treatment). Fruit set and stem total non-structural carbohydrates (TNSC) over time, and yield were measured. In the second experiment (2006/2007), upper branches of trees were tip-pruned at anthesis, some trees were allowed to re-shoot (R) and shoots were removed from others (NR). Fruit set and yield were measured separately for upper (pruned) and lower (unpruned) branches.

Key Results

In the first experiment, R trees set far fewer fruit and had lower yield than NR trees. TNSC fell and rose in all treatments but the decline in R trees occurred earlier than in NR trees and coincided with early shoot growth and the increase in fruit abscission relative to the other treatments. In the second experiment, fruit abscission on upper branches of R trees increased relative to the other treatments but there was little difference in fruit abscission between treatments on lower branches.

Conclusions

This study is the first to demonstrate an increase in fruit abscission in an evergreen tree in response to pruning. The effect appeared to be related to competition for carbohydrates between post-pruning shoot growth and fruit development and was local, with shoot growth on pruned branches having no effect on fruit abscission on unpruned branches.     

Ultrastructure of Macadamia (Proteaceae) embryos: implications for their breakage properties

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Macadamia integrifolia, M. tetraphylla and their hybrids are cultivated for their edible kernels. Whole kernels, i.e. intact mature embryos with cotyledons fused together, are highly valued and breakage of embryos into halves results in loss of value for the commercial macadamia industry. The morphology and ultrastructure of the mature macadamia embryo, with particular emphasis on the break zone between cotyledons, were investigated. Differences in breakage between different macadamia cultivars were also examined. METHODS: Manual cracking was used to compare breakage in five cultivars and the ultrastructure of the break zone between the cotyledons was examined using light and transmission electron microscopy. KEY RESULTS: Breakage of macadamia embryos was strongly dependent on genotype of the female parent, with cultivars 'HAES 344' and 'HAES 741' much more likely to break than 'HV A16' and 'HAES 835'. Cotyledons were surrounded by a layer of cuticle resulting in a double cuticle in the break zone between the cotyledons. Three major differences have been found in the ultrastructure of the double cuticle between cultivars: a thicker cuticle in the low-whole cultivar; convolutions in the cuticle of a low-whole cultivar, and the presence of more electron-dense objects in the high-whole cultivar. CONCLUSIONS: Breakage of macadamia embryos depends on the cultivar, with clear ultrastructural differences in the break zone between cultivars. To ensure commercial benefits, macadamia breeding programs should identify germplasm with structural characteristics that ensure high percentages of whole kernel.     

The mode of action of the plant antimicrobial peptide MiAMP1 differs from that of its structural homologue, the yeast killer toxin WmKT

The plant antimicrobial peptide MiAMP1 from Macadamia integrifolia and the yeast killer toxin peptide WmKT from Williopsis mrakii are structural homologues. Comparative studies of yeast mutants were performed to test their sensitivity to these two antimicrobial peptides. No differences in susceptibility to MiAMP1 were detected between wild-type and several WmKT-resistant mutant yeast strains. A yeast mutant MT1, resistant to MiAMP1 but unaffected in its susceptibility to plant defensins and hydrogen peroxide, also did not show enhanced tolerance towards WmKT. It is therefore probable that the Greek key beta-barrel structure shared by MiAMP1 and WmKT provides a robust structural framework ensuring stability for the two proteins but that the specific action of the peptides depends on other motifs.     

Time-calibrated phylogeny of the woody Australian genus Hakea (Proteaceae) supports multiple origins of insect-pollination among bird-pollinated ancestors

? Premise of the study: A past study based on morphological data alone showed that the means by which plants of the Australian genus Hakea reduce florivory is related to the evolution of bird pollination. For example, bird pollination was shown to have arisen only in insect-pollinated lineages that already produced greater amounts of floral cyanide, a feature that reduces florivory. We examine a central conclusion of that study, and a common assumption in the literature, that bird pollination arose in insect-pollinated lineages, rather than the reverse. ? Methods: We combined morphological and DNA data to infer the phylogeny and age of the Australian genus Hakea, using 9.2 kilobases of plastid and nuclear DNA and 46 morphological characters from a taxonomically even sampling of 55 of the 149 species. ? Key results: Hakea is rooted confidently in a position that has not been suggested before. The phylogeny implies that bird pollination is primitive in Hakea and that multiple shifts to insect pollination have occurred. The unexpectedly young age of Hakea (a crown age of ca. 10 Ma) makes it coincident with its primary bird pollinators (honeyeaters) throughout its history. ? Conclusions: Our study demonstrates that Hakea is an exception to the more commonly described shift from insect to bird pollination. However, we note that only one previous phylogenetic study involved Australian plants and their honeyeater pollinators and that our finding might prove to be more common on that continent.     

Efficacy of tar oil recovered during slow pyrolysis of macadamia nut shells

Decay and termite resistance of wood treated with tar oil obtained from a commercial pyrolysis process of macadamia nut shells was evaluated. Vacuum-treated pinewood specimens were subjected to two brown- and two white-rot fungi based on the soil-block test method specified by the American Wood Protection Association after a 10-day-leaching process. Treated specimens were also subjected to the subterranean termite attack according to Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS) for 3 weeks under laboratory conditions. In the study, growth inhibition of selected fungi with the tar oil was also tested in vitro. Treated wood specimens at a retention level of 460 kg m⁻³ showed good protection against all the fungi tested. Mass losses in leached specimens were less than those observed in unleached specimens. Similar results were seen when the specimens were subjected to termite attack. Inhibition tests showed that higher concentrations of the tar oil are critical for inhibition of the brown-rot fungi compared to the concentrations required to impede the white-rot and sap-staining fungi tested.     

Anionic Antimicrobial and Anticancer Peptides from Plants

Anionic antimicrobial peptides (AAMPs) have been identified in a wide variety of plant species with net charges that range between ?1 and ?7 and structures that include: extended conformations, α-helical architecture and cysteine stabilized scaffolds. These peptides commonly exist as multiple isoforms within a given plant and have a range of biological activities including the ability to kill cancer cells as well as phytopathogenic bacteria, fungi, pests, molluscs, and other predatory species. In general, the killing mechanisms underpinning these activities are poorly understood although they appear to involve attack on intracellular targets such as DNA along with compromise of cell envelope integrity through lysis of the cell wall via chitin-binding and/or permeabilisation of the plasma membrane via lipid interaction. It is now becoming clear that AAMPs participate in the innate immune response of plants and make a major contribution to the arsenal of defence toxins produced by these organisms to compensate for their lack of some defence mechanisms possessed by mammals, such as mobility and a somatic adaptive immune system. Based on their biological properties, a number of potential uses for plant AAMPs have been suggested, including therapeutically useful anticancer agents and novel antimicrobial compounds, which could be utilized in a variety of scenarios, ranging from the protection of crops to the disinfection of hospital environments.     

澳洲坚果根系溶提物对AM真菌孢子萌发和菌丝生长的影响

 澳洲坚果(Macadamia integrifolia)根系甲醇溶提物影响离体培养条件下丛枝菌根真菌孢子生长发育的试验结果表明,澳洲坚果根系甲醇溶提物对离体条件下丛枝菌根真菌（Glomus mosseae和Giga spora margarita）孢子生长发育有明显的促进作用,能显著提高孢子萌发率,增加菌丝长度。浓度为20%～100%的甲醇溶提物均可显著促进丛枝菌根真菌孢子的生长发育,其孢子萌发率和菌丝长度均显著高于对照,60%的甲醇溶提物效果最明显。Glomus mosseae和Gigaspora margarita孢子萌发率随着甲醇溶提物浓度的升高而增加,60%甲醇溶提物孢子萌发率达到最高,分别为81.7% 和76.0%。Glomus mosseae和Gigaspora margarita孢子菌丝长度也表现为随洗脱剂浓度的升高,菌丝生长呈先增强后减弱趋势,洗脱剂浓度为60%时菌丝长度达最长,分别为31.2和28.0 mm。 澳洲坚果根系甲醇溶提物中含丰富的黄酮类物质,其含量与甲醇洗脱剂的浓度有关,当浓度为60%时,黄酮类物质含量最高。通过对澳洲坚果根系甲醇溶提物中黄酮类物质含量与丛枝菌根真菌孢子生长发育的相关性分析发现,甲醇溶提物中黄酮类物质含量与离体条件下丛枝菌根真菌孢子的生长发育表现为极显著的正相关。甲醇溶提物中黄酮类物质含量越高,其对丛枝菌根真菌孢子的生长发育促进作用越大。     

水分胁迫对澳洲坚果花粉生活力和贮藏性的影响

采集经不同水分胁迫处理的澳洲坚果植株的花粉进行生活力测定和贮藏性研究,结果表明,新鲜花粉生活力随贮藏时间增加而下降。常温下正常发育花粉可保存6d左右,此后萌发率逐渐下降;而处于水分胁迫下的花粉,6d后生活力迅速降低;水分胁迫程度越严重,花粉生活力下降越快。几种处理的花粉有效贮藏期分别是:饱和灌溉处理6d,正常灌溉处理30d,水分亏缺处理10d,严重干旱处理(CK)4d。研究还表明,品种间花粉贮藏性表现为Kau>Pahala>O.C.。澳洲坚果花粉生活力的最佳染色鉴定方法为联苯胺染色法。     

澳洲坚果MibZIP1基因克隆及表达规律分析

为研究澳洲坚果（Macadamia integrifolia）中bZIP转录因子家族成员在逆境抗性中潜在功能,从‘桂热1号’品种果实中克隆MibZIP1基因。结合转录因子结构分析和不同处理下表达规律进行分析发现MibZIP1基因序列长度1 157 bp,基因编码区长度927 bp,编码308个氨基酸。MibZIP1存在典型bZIP superfamily结构域。系统进化分析鉴定出澳洲坚果MibZIP1、蒂罗花（Telopea speciosissima）TsbZIP60和荷花（Nelumbo nucifera）NnbZIP60亲缘关系较近。组织表达分析结果表明MibZIP1在‘桂热1号’品种叶片中的表达量最低,在‘695’品种枝条中的表达量最高。其在受玉米素、水杨酸、乙烯利和脱落酸处理的“桂热1号”叶片中显著上调表达,在赤霉素和过氧化氢处理的“桂热1号”叶片中表达差异不显著。推测MibZIP1与澳洲坚果抗逆性有关,为研发澳洲坚果新型栽培和激素调控技术提供理论指导。     

Isolation and characterization of microsatellite loci from Macadamia

Thirty‐three microsatellite loci were isolated for the Australian rainforest tree Macadamia integrifolia. Genotyping across a test panel of 43 commercial cultivars generated an average polymorphic information content of 0.480. Five loci showed no polymorphism across cultivars. Significant linkage disequilibrium was detected in 10 pairwise comparisons, including two pairs of loci identified from the same clone sequence. The 33 microsatellite loci represent a significant tool for genome mapping and population genetic studies.