Why the term “larva” is ambiguous,or what makes a larva?

The term “larva” is used for many different metazoans. Although this implies a uniform meaning, the term has in fact been used to address immatures with very different characteristics. For providing more precise reference how the term larva is applied in a specific context, I outline here different criteria that have been used to identify an immature as a larva. These include larvae that (a) differ morphologically from their adult (morpho-larva s. l.); (b) differ morphologically from their adult and additionally possess structures that become reduced during ontogeny (morpho-larva s. str.); (c) have a different ecological niche than their adult (eco-larva s. l.); (d) have a different ecological niche than their adult and additionally fulfil a dispersal function (eco-larva s. str.); (e) transform by a metamorphosis to the non-larval immature or adult (metamorph-larva); (f) differ from the adult by having evolved new structures in the early stages (apo-larva); (g) differ from the adult as the adult has evolved new structures (plesio-larva). The differentiation of these criteria will provide a more precise reference reducing possible misunderstanding and allowing a more precise communication.     

Assessing the concept of controlled experiments in science teachers

Biology teachers, attending a post-graduate training course, were given a written test in which they had to identify the controlled set-up in two different experiments. A teaching strategy was designed to help the subjects to construct and consolidate an understanding of controlled experiments, in line with scientific inquiry methods, by following the process of hypothesis, formulation and testing.     

Defining CO2 and O2 syndromes of marine biomes in the Anthropocene

Research efforts have intensified to foresee the prospects for marine biomes under climate change and anthropogenic drivers over varying temporal and spatial scales. Parallel with these efforts is the utilization of terminology, such as ‘ocean acidification’ (OA) and ‘ocean deoxygenation’ (OD), that can foster rapid comprehension of complex processes driving carbon dioxide (CO₂) and oxygen (O₂) concentrations in the global ocean and thus, are now widely used in discussions within and beyond academia. However, common usage of the terms ‘acidification’ and ‘deoxygenation’ alone are subjective and, without adequate contextualization, have the potential to mislead inferences over drivers that may ultimately shape the future state of marine ecosystems. Here we clarify the usage of the terms OA and OD as global, climate change‐driven processes and discuss the various attributes of elevated CO₂ and reduced O₂ syndromes common to coastal ecosystems. We support the use of the existing terms ‘coastal acidification’ and ‘coastal deoxygenation’ because they help differentiate the sometimes rapid and extreme nature of CO₂ and O₂ syndromes in coastal ecosystems from the global, climate change‐driven processes of OA and OD. Given the complexity and breadth of the processes involved in altering CO₂ and O₂ concentrations across marine ecosystems, we provide a workflow to enable contextualization and clarification of the usage of existing terms and highlight the close link between these two gases across spatial and temporal scales in the ocean. These distinctions are crucial to guide effective communication of research within the scientific community and guide policymakers responsible for intervening on the drivers to secure desirable future ocean states.     

灵长类学术语的规范化表述:以α-雄性更替为例

术语是科学概念的约定性语言符号,是科技信息交流的工具。中国的灵长类学研究虽然起步较晚,但发展迅速。在研究过程中,学者们广泛参阅、借鉴国际同行的研究成果,并引入了一些灵长类学专业术语。科学、规范、准确、明晰的表达理应成为学者们的共识,而这对信息的沟通与交流至关重要。本文阐述了科学研究术语规范化表述的重要性,并基于文献梳理,介绍了非人灵长类社会中α-雄性更替（α-male replacement）的主要类型之术语及其含义,建议国内研究者使用：（1）取代（Takeover）;（2）等级反转（Rank reversal）;（3）继承（Succession）;（4）补缺（Waltz-in）;（5）分群（Fission）。文中还讨论了影响α-雄性更替的主要因素。     

Sweat rate and sweat composition during heat acclimation

The purpose of this study was to determine local sweat rate (LSR) and sweat composition during heat acclimation (HA). For ten consecutive days of HA, eight participants cycled in 33 °C and 65% relative humidity at an intensity such that a rectal temperature of 38.5 °C was reached within ~40 min, followed by a 60-min clamp of this rectal temperature (i.e., controlled hyperthermia). Four participants extended HA by a 28-day decay period and five consecutive days of heat re-acclimation (HRA) using controlled hyperthermia. Sweat from the upper arm and upper back was collected three times during each heat exposure session. LSR and sweat sodium, chloride, lactate, and potassium concentrations were determined. Relative to HA day 1, LSR was increased at the final day of HA (day 10) (arm: +58%, P < 0.001; back: +36%, P < 0.05). Concentrations of sodium, chloride, and lactate significantly (P < 0.05) decreased to ~60% at HA day 10 compared to day 1 on the arm and back. Potassium concentration did not significantly differ on HA day 10 compared to day 1 (arm: +11%, P > 0.05; back: +8%, P > 0.05). The induction patterns of the sudomotor adaptations were different. Whilst LSR increased from HA day 8 on the arm and from HA day 7 on the back, sodium and chloride conservation already occurred from HA day 3 on both skin sites. Lastly, the sweat lactate reduction occurred from HA day 6 on the arm and back. Initial evidence is provided that adaptations were partly conserved after decay (28 days) and that a 5-day HRA may be sufficient to restore HA adaptations. In conclusion, ten days of exercise-induced HA using controlled hyperthermia led to increases in LSR and concomitant reductions of sweat sodium, chloride, and lactate concentrations, whilst potassium concentrations remained relatively constant.     

Characterization and properties of catalase immobilized onto controlled pore glass and its application in batch and plug-flow type reactors

Bovine liver catalase was covalently immobilized onto controlled pore glass (CPG) beads modified with 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (3-APTES) followed by treatment with glutaraldehyde. Coupling of catalase onto CPG was optimized to improve the efficiency of the overall immobilization procedure. The optimum coupling conditions: pore diameter of CPG, pH, buffer concentration, temperature, coupling time and initial catalase amount per grams of carrier were determined as 70 nm, 6.0, 75 mM, 5 °C, 7 h and 6 mg catalase, respectively. Catalytic efficiencies (k_cat/K_m) and thermal inactivation rate constants (k_i) of ICPG1 were determined and compared with that of free catalase. Suitability of ICPG1 was also investigated by using it in batch and plug-flow type reactors. When the remaining activity of ICPG1 retained was about 50% of its initial activity the highest total productivity of ICPG1 was determined as 7.6 × 10⁶ U g immobilized catalase⁻¹ in plug-flow type reactor. However, the highest total productivity of ICPG1 was 6.2 × 10⁵ U g immobilized catalase⁻¹ in batch type reactor. ICPG1 may have great potentials as biocatalyst for the application in decomposition of hydrogen peroxide in plug-flow type reactor.     

Enterocytozoon bieneusi Genotype Nomenclature Based on the Internal Transcribed Spacer Sequence: A Consensus

ABSTRACT. The standard method for determining the genotypes of Enterocytozoon bieneusi is based on the DNA sequence of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of the rRNA gene. There are 81 genotypes with 111 genotype names: 26 genotypes have been identified exclusively in humans, eight have been identified in humans and in other hosts, 27 have been identified exclusively in cattle and pigs, six have been identified exclusively in cats and dogs, and 14 have been identified in miscellaneous hosts. Because none of these genotypes has taxonomic status and therefore do not adhere to the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature regarding naming, some genotypes have received multiple names, each different and in separate publications by different authors. Because of the proliferation of genotypes with overlapping names and multiple hosts the scientific literature has become confusing and difficult to efficiently utilize. To reduce confusion and provide guidance for future publications we tabulated all names, GenBank accession numbers, and author citations and propose that the first published name has precedence and should become the primary name used in all subsequent publications in which genotyping is based on ITS sequencing. In those publications the names and GenBank numbers that were submitted at later dates should also be provided by the authors as synonyms to aid readers and reviewers.     

Development of cryopreservation protocols for early stage zebrafish (Danio rerio) ovarian follicles using controlled slow cooling

Cryopreservation of germplasm of aquatic species offers many benefits to the fields of aquaculture, conservation and biomedicine. Although successful fish sperm cryopreservation has been achieved with many species, there has been no report of successful cryopreservation of fish embryos and late stage oocytes which are large, chilling sensitive and have low membrane permeability. In the present study, cryopreservation of early stage zebrafish ovarian follicles was studied for the first time using controlled slow freezing. The effect of cryoprotectant, freezing medium, cooling rate, method for cryoprotectant removal, post-thaw incubation time and ovarian follicle developmental stage were investigated. Stages I and II ovarian follicles were frozen in 4 M methanol and 3 M DMSO in either L-15 medium or KCl buffer. Ovarian follicle viability was assessed using trypan blue, FDA + PI staining and ADP/ATP assay. The results showed that KCl buffer was more beneficial than L-15 medium, methanol was more effective than DMSO, optimum cooling rates were 2-4 °C/min, stepwise removal of cryoprotectant improved ovarian follicle viability significantly and stage I ovarian follicles were more sensitive to freezing. The results also showed that FDA + PI staining and ADP/ATP assay were more sensitive than TB staining. The highest follicle viabilities after post-thaw incubation for 2 h obtained with FDA + PI staining were 50.7 ± 4.0% although ADP/ATP ratios of the cryopreserved follicles were significantly increased indicating increased cell damage. Studies are currently being carried out on in vitro maturation of these cryopreserved ovarian follicles.