Initial size and dynamics of viral fusion pores are a function of the fusion protein mediating membrane fusion

Background information. Protein‐mediated merger of biological membranes, membrane fusion, is an important process. To investigate the role of fusogenic proteins in the initial size and dynamics of the fusion pore (a narrow aqueous pathway, which widens to finalize membrane fusion), two different fusion proteins expressed in the same cell line were investigated: the major glycoprotein of baculovirus Autographa californica (GP64) and the HA (haemagglutinin) of influenza X31. Results. The host Sf9 cells expressing these viral proteins, irrespective of protein species, fused to human RBCs (red blood cells) upon acidification of the medium. A high‐time‐resolution electrophysiological study of fusion pore conductance revealed fundamental differences in (i) the initial pore conductance; pores created by HA were smaller than those created by GP64; (ii) the ability of pores to flicker; only HA‐mediated pores flickered; and (iii) the time required for pore formation; HA‐mediated pores took much longer to form after acidification. Conclusion. HA and GP64 have divergent electrophysiological phenotypes even when they fuse identical membranes, and fusion proteins play a crucial role in determining initial fusion pore characteristics. The structure of the initial fusion pore detected by electrical conductance measurements is sensitive to the nature of the fusion protein.     

仙台病毒血凝素神经氨酸酶在哺乳动物细胞中的转录和翻译

仙台病毒的血凝素神经氨酸酶 (HN)在COS 7细胞中得到了表达。将具有表达功能的质粒转入非洲绿猴肾细胞LLCMK2 中 ,在抗生素筛选压力下连续传代 ,获得了具有抗生素抗药性的细胞系 ,表明HN基因已整合到该细胞的染色体中。尽管核酸酶S1实验结果表明 ,这些抗药性细胞内有大量HNmRNA的转录 ,但非直接免疫荧光和放射性免疫沉淀的结果却显示 ,细胞表面和细胞内部的HN蛋白的表达量很低。而仙台病毒持续感染的LLCMK2 细胞中却有大量的HN蛋白存在。这种转录与翻译不一致的现象 ,表明某些病毒因子对HN基因mRNA转录本的加工或翻译可能有正调控作用。同时也说明 ,在外源基因的表达过程中 ,没有可测定的表达蛋白也不一定就是没有该基因的转录。     

Membrane vesicles released by Avibacterium paragallinarum contain putative virulence factors

Avibacterium paragallinarum, the causative agent of infectious coryza, releases extracellular membrane vesicles (MVs), containing immunogenic proteins, proteases, putative RTX proteins, haemagglutinin, and nucleic acids, into the medium. MVs ranging 50-300 nm in diameter were observed by electron microscopy. They contained immunogenic proteins in the range of 20-160 kDa, detected using vaccinated or experimentally infected chicken sera raised against Av. paragallinarum, but not in pooled sera from specific pathogen-free chickens. Proteolytic activity was not detected in MVs through zymograms; however, immune recognition of high molecular mass bands was observed by Western blotting using an antiprotease serum against Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae serotype 1 purified protease, suggesting its presence. MVs agglutinated glutaraldehyde-fixed chicken red blood cells indicating the presence of haemagglutinating antigens. Nucleic acids were also detected inside MVs. Avibacterium paragallinarum releases MVs containing putative virulence factors, which could be important in the pathogenesis of infectious coryza.     

Proteolytic activation of Vibrio mimicus (Vm) major outer membrane protein haemagglutinin (HA) with Vm-HA/protease: Implication for understanding bacterial adherence

Vibrio mimicus (Vm) haemagglutinins (HAs), such as an extracellular HA/protease (Vm-HA/protease) and a major outer membrane protein-HA (Vm-OMPHA), have been recognized as the putative adherence factors for the bacterium. However, the mechanism by which HAs coordinate the adherence function of the bacterium remains as yet unknown. We report herein the positive interaction between Vm-HA/protease and Vm-OMPHA resulting in significant enhancement of the haemagglutinating ability. In this interaction, no cleaved polypeptide was detected; however, limited proteolysis of Vm-OMPHA was confirmed by SDS-PAGE. The proteolytic activation of the native cell-associated Vm-OMPHA by limited proteolysis was also demonstrated in several V. mimicus strains. Proteolytic activation of OMPHA was also achieved with various proteases from bacterial and eukaryotic sources. These findings may indicate a novel coordination of V. mimicus HAs in the adherence of the bacterium.     

Modesto株副鸡禽杆菌血凝素的原核表达及其生物活性鉴定

目的：克隆并原核表达Modesto株C型副鸡禽杆菌（Apg）的血凝素（HA）基因,鉴定该重组HA的生物学活性。方法：根据GenBank上已发表的Modesto株Apg的HA基因序列,设计合成了1对特异性引物,克隆ApgHA基因;以Modesto株Apg中提取的细菌DNA为模板,利用PCR扩增ApgHA全长基因（1026bp）,将其克隆到pET-32a（＋）载体上,构建原核表达载体pET—HA,在大肠杆菌BL21（DE3）中表达并纯化重组HA;通过Western印迹及血凝和血凝抑制试验鉴定该重组蛋白的生物学活性。结果：表达并纯化了Apg重组HA,该蛋白可以和C型Apg抗血清特异性结合,并且可以凝集鸡红细胞。结论：构建了Modesto株ApgHA基因的原核表达载体,并表达纯化了ApgHA融合蛋白,该重组HA具有凝集鸡红细胞的活性,为进一步研究ApgHA的免疫功能奠定了基础。     

Directionality in the evolution of influenza A haemagglutinin

The evolution of haemagglutinin (HA), an important influenza virus antigen, has been the subject of intensive research for more than two decades. Many characteristics of HA's sequence evolution are captured by standard Markov chain substitution models. Such models assign equal fitness to all accessible amino acids at a site. We show, however, that such models strongly underestimate the number of homoplastic amino acid substitutions during the course of HA's evolution, i.e. substitutions that repeatedly give rise to the same amino acid at a site. We develop statistics to detect individual homoplastic events and find that they preferentially occur at positively selected epitopic sites. Our results suggest that the evolution of the influenza A HA, including evolution by positive selection, is strongly affected by the long-term site-specific preferences for individual amino acids.     

Lipid raft-dependent targeting of the influenza A virus nucleoprotein to the apical plasma membrane

Influenza virus acquires a lipid raft-containing envelope by budding from the apical surface of epithelial cells. Polarised budding involves specific sorting of the viral membrane proteins, but little is known about trafficking of the internal virion components. We show that during the later stages of virus infection, influenza nucleoprotein (NP) and polymerase (the protein components of genomic ribonucleoproteins) localised to apical but not lateral or basolateral membranes, even in cell types where haemagglutinin was found on all external membranes. Other cytosolic components of the virion either distributed throughout the cytoplasm (NEP/NS2) or did not localise solely to the apical plasma membrane in all cell types (M1). NP localised specifically to the apical surface even when expressed alone, indicating intrinsic targeting. A similar proportion of NP associated with membrane fractions in flotation assays from virus-infected and plasmid-transfected cells. Detergent-resistant flotation at 4 degrees C suggested that these membranes were lipid raft microdomains. Confirming this, cholesterol depletion rendered NP detergent-soluble and furthermore, resulted in its partial redistribution throughout the cell. We conclude that NP is independently targeted to the apical plasma membrane through a mechanism involving lipid rafts and propose that this helps determine the polarity of influenza virus budding.     

Viral Fusion Peptides: A Tool Set to Disrupt and Connect Biological Membranes

The structure and function of viral fusion peptides are reviewed. The fusion peptides of influenza virus hemagglutinin and human immunodeficiency virus are used as paradigms. Fusion peptides associated with lipid bilayers are conformationally polymorphic. Current evidence suggests that the fusion-promoting state is the obliquely inserted -helix. Fusion peptides also have a tendency to self-associate into -sheets at membrane surfaces. Although the conformational conversion between - and -states is reversible under controlled conditions, its physiological relevance is not yet known. The energetics of peptide insertion and self-association could be measured recently using more soluble second generation fusion peptides. Fusion peptides have been reported to change membrane curvature and the state of hydration of membrane surfaces. The combined results are built into a model for the mechanism by which fusion peptides are proposed to assist in biological membrane fusion.     

A novel non-fimbrial mannose-sensitive and eluting (MSE) haemagglutinin of Yersinia frederiksenii strains

Abstract An unusual, mannose-sensitive and eluting haemagglutinin (MSEHA), not previously described in Yersinia species, was produced by some Yersinia frederiksenii strains. The MSEHA, which was formed best in broth-grown cultures at 18°C, agglutinated erythrocytes of guinea pig, fowl, horse and pig in haemagglutination tests made in the absence of α-methylmannoside and in the cold. The MSEHA, which was labile to proteolytic enzymes, heat, alcohol and acid, seemed to be a non-fimbrial, cell-bound protein. This unusual kind of non-fimbrial MSEHA has not previously been described in Enterobacteriaceae.     

Polarized traffic towards the cell surface: how to find the route

Polarity is the structural and functional hallmark of epithelia. The apical plasma membrane, facing the organism's exterior (the lumen of the gut, renal tubule and glandular duct), differs in many important respects from the basolateral plasma membrane that is apposed to the interior of the organism. The generation and maintenance of epithelial polarity require a highly specialized subcellular machinery to bring proteins to their appropriate sites of action. This is a dynamic process involving the interpretation of sorting signals, vectorial delivery mechanisms, membrane‐specific fusion and retention processes. Here, we will provide a review of the field, highlighting recent advances within a historically relevant context.