Evolutionary history of a complex adaptation: Tetrodotoxin resistance in salamanders

Understanding the processes that generate novel adaptive phenotypes is central to evolutionary biology. We used comparative analyses to reveal the history of tetrodotoxin (TTX) resistance in TTX-bearing salamanders. Resistance to TTX is a critical component of the ability to use TTX defensively but the origin of the TTX-bearing phenotype is unclear. Skeletal muscle of TTX-bearing salamanders (modern newts, family: Salamandridae) is unaffected by TTX at doses far in excess of those that block action potentials in muscle and nerve of other vertebrates. Skeletal muscle of non-TTX-bearing salamandrids is also resistant to TTX but at lower levels. Skeletal muscle TTX resistance in the Salamandridae results from the expression of TTX-resistant variants of the voltage-gated sodium channel Na_V 1.4 (SCN4a). We identified four substitutions in the coding region of salSCN4a that are likely responsible for the TTX resistance measured in TTX-bearing salamanders and variation at one of these sites likely explains variation in TTX resistance among other lineages. Our results suggest that exaptation has played a role in the evolution of the TTX-bearing phenotype and provide empirical evidence that complex physiological adaptations can arise through the accumulation of beneficial mutations in the coding region of conserved proteins.     

Die Bedeutung desRamus palatinus für die Vomerspangenbildung beiSalamandra salamandra (L.)

Zusammenfassung BeiSalamandra salamandra wurde der Einfluß desRamus palatinus (VII.) und der Lage des Vomer auf die sich während der Metamorphose bildende Vomerspange untersucht. Eine Durchtrennung des Nerven stört das Wachstum der Spange nicht, da der Nerr rasch regeneriert. Nach Durchtrennung und Verlagerung desRamus palatinus bildet sich jedoch keine Vomerspange, ebenso nicht nach Exstirpation eines Teiles des Nerven. Nach Entnahme von Nervenstücken nach Beginn der Metamorphose entwikkeln sich Teilspangen. Das Vorhandensein eines intaktenRamus palatinus ist offenbar Voraussetzung für das Auswachsen der neuen knöchernen Vomerspange. Die Richtung des Spangenwachstums ist nicht von einer bestimmten Lage des Larvenvomer abhängig.

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The significance of theramus palatinus to the development of the vomerine bar inSalamandra salamandra (L.)

Summary The influence of theramus palatinus (VII.) and the postion of the vomer on the vomerine bar, which develops during metamorphosis, was studied by various amputation procedures. Cutting off the nerve cord does not prevent the development of the vomerine bar, as the nerve soon regenerates, whereas cutting off and displacement as well as the removal of portions of theramus palatinus do prevent development. Removal of portions of the nerve cord during metamorphosis produces only parts of the vomerine bar. Obviously an intact ramus palatinus is necessary for the outgrowth of the novel osseous vomerine bar. The course of this outgrowth is independent of the position of the larval vomer.

Für die Unterstützung bei der Anfertigung dieser Arbeit danke ich herzlich Herrn Professor Dr. H. Hartwig, Zoologisches Institut der Universität Köln     

Isolation and characterization of polymorphic tetranucleotide microsatellite loci in the Fire salamander Salamandra salamandra (Amphibia: Caudata)

Ten tetranucleotide and one dinucleotide polymorphic microsatellite loci were cloned and characterized for the Fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra) from 34 populations in Germany. A high genetic diversity (5–22 alleles per locus) and heterozygosity (40.6–95.2%) were observed for these markers. Chord distances for population comparisons of the western evolutionary recolonization lineage in the area near Cologne ranged from 0.139 to 0.366, whereas population comparisons between the western and eastern lineage ranged from 0.541 to 0.670. When compared with classical isolation methods, a sufficient number of polymorphic microsatellites can be obtained for the Fire salamander only from specially enriched sublibraries.