Polymorphisms and variants in the prion protein sequence of European moose (Alces alces), reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and fallow deer (Dama dama) in Scandinavia

The prion protein (PrP) sequence of European moose, reindeer, roe deer and fallow deer in Scandinavia has high homology to the PrP sequence of North American cervids. Variants in the European moose PrP sequence were found at amino acid position 109 as K or Q. The 109Q variant is unique in the PrP sequence of vertebrates. During the 1980s a wasting syndrome in Swedish moose, Moose Wasting Syndrome (MWS), was described. SNP analysis demonstrated a difference in the observed genotype proportions of the heterozygous Q/K and homozygous Q/Q variants in the MWS animals compared with the healthy animals. In MWS moose the allele frequencies for 109K and 109Q were 0.73 and 0.27, respectively, and for healthy animals 0.69 and 0.31. Both alleles were seen as heterozygotes and homozygotes. In reindeer, PrP sequence variation was demonstrated at codon 176 as D or N and codon 225 as S or Y. The PrP sequences in roe deer and fallow deer were identical with published GenBank sequences.     

驯鹿对苔藓植物的选择食用及其生境的物种多样性

苔藓植物由于含有较高浓度的不饱和脂肪酸尤其是花生四烯酸可以提高动物的御寒能力,因此驯鹿和其他许多生活在寒冷地区的食草动物以及鸟类将苔藓作为主要的食物来源。为了进一步了解苔藓被采食的情况,本实验对生活在内蒙古大兴安岭满归敖鲁古雅民族乡的驯鹿3个月份的粪便(1999年采)进行了显微观察,发现其中苔藓植物在4月份占5.63%、6月份2.2%、9月份12.92%,3个月份的粪便中均以赤茎藓（Pleurozium schreberi）为主,占苔藓总量的70%以上,曲尾藓（Dicranum spp.）、毛叶苔（Ptilidium ciliare）和沼泽皱蒴藓（Aulacomnium palustre）也有少量食用。对驯鹿生活区域内4种林型下苔藓植物的盖度和生物量的测定结果表明,驯鹿对苔藓植物的选择食用与苔藓植物的物种和丰富度相关。     

大兴安岭驯鹿(Rangifer tarandus)的春季生境选择

为确定分布于我国大兴安岭西北麓的濒危驯鹿(Rangifer tarandus)的春季生境选择特征,于2012和2013年的3—4月间,采用样线样方结合的生境调查方法,对内蒙根河驯鹿的春季偏好生境和对照生境进行了取样,并对样方的海拔和乔木郁闭度等23个生境变量进行了计测与分析。结果表明:与非利用样方(n=132)相比,驯鹿春季偏好生境(n=79)的海拔((957.27±1.68)m)、乔木郁闭度((32.84±2.72)%)、乔木密度(21.72±1.52)、地表植被盖度((85.06±1.03)%)、树桩数(6.81±0.45)和倒木数(5.73±0.54)均显著较大(Mann-Whitney U test,P0.05),而灌木盖度((57.95±2.79)%)、枯草盖度((33.11±2.79)%)、乔木高度((9.58±0.27)m)和灌木均高((59.85±2.69)cm)显著较小(Mann-Whitney U test,P0.05),而且驯鹿春季趋向于选择西坡和南坡(77.21%)的坡度较缓(93.67%)、位于坡中下位(67.09%)的生境,并偏好选择针叶林(68.35%)中的隐蔽度好(82.28%)、避风状况良好(64.56%)、湿润(60.76%)、距水源较近(≤1000 m,94.94%)及距人为干扰较远(≥1000m,87.34%)的生境(Chi-Square test,P0.05)。此外,驯鹿偏好生境的变量主成分分析结果表明,坡位、乔木特征(乔木胸径和乔木高度)、食物多度(灌木盖度、倒木数及树桩数)、雪被特征(雪深、雪盖度和郁闭度)、干扰强度(距人为干扰距离)、植被类型(坡向和植被类型)是影响驯鹿春季生境选择的重要因素,综合体现了驯鹿在春季对保温、食物和安全性的需求。     

Stabilizing selection and adaptive evolution in a combination of two traits in an arctic ungulate

Stabilizing selection is thought to be common in wild populations and act as one of the main evolutionary mechanisms, which constrain phenotypic variation. When multiple traits interact to create a combined phenotype, correlational selection may be an important process driving adaptive evolution. Here, we report on phenotypic selection and evolutionary changes in two natal traits in a semidomestic population of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) in northern Finland. The population has been closely monitored since 1969, and detailed data have been collected on individuals since they were born. Over the length of the study period (1969–2015), we found directional and stabilizing selection toward a combination of earlier birth date and heavier birth mass with an intermediate optimum along the major axis of the selection surface. In addition, we demonstrate significant changes in mean traits toward earlier birth date and heavier birth mass, with corresponding genetic changes in breeding values during the study period. Our results demonstrate evolutionary changes in a combination of two traits, which agree closely with estimated patterns of phenotypic selection. Knowledge of the selective surface for combinations of genetically correlated traits are vital to predict how population mean phenotypes and fitness are affected when environments change.     

Effects of Hunting on Response Behaviors of Wild Reindeer

ABSTRACT Because wild reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) are hunted in southern Norway, reindeer may perceive all recreationists as threats. Potential adverse effects of hunting on reindeer behavior may be exacerbated by other forms of recreation because the number of skiers and hikers in areas inhabited by reindeer has also increased. The Norefjell-Reinsjøfjell wild reindeer area is used extensively for recreation and tourism. Reindeer hunting was introduced in the area in 1992, and harvest rate has been stable at about 38% of winter herd size. We recorded behavioral responses of reindeer to a person approaching directly on foot or skis during 1992 and again in 2002–2006. Compared to 1992, flight-initiation distance increased and fewer groups assessed the observer before taking flight during 2002–2006. In winter, when reindeer are usually comparably more vigilant than in other seasons, flight-initiation distance increased from only 60 m to 115 m and escape distance decreased from 400 m to 210 m. Neither alert distance, calf carcass weights (23.6 ± 0.7 [SE] kg to 22.4 ± 0.2 kg), nor reindeer herd size (661 ± 73 to 579 ± 15) changed during the 15 years of our study. Reindeer appeared to habituate to the observer because they initiated flight at shorter distances as the number of approaches on the same day increased. In Norefjell-Reinsjøfjell, encounters with a person on foot or skis did not result in behavioral responses likely to entail substantial energy costs for reindeer; therefore, hunting at current levels appears compatible with other recreational activities.     

Rumen microbial diversity in Svalbard reindeer, with particular emphasis on methanogenic archaea

Ruminal methanogens, bacteria and ciliate protozoa of Svalbard reindeer grazing natural pastures in October (late fall) and April (late winter) were investigated using molecular-based approaches. The appetite of the Svalbard reindeer peaks in August (summer) and is at its lowest in March (winter). Microbial numbers, quantified by real-time PCR, did not change significantly between October and April, when food intakes are at similar levels, although the numbers of methanogens tended to be higher in October ( P =0.074), and ciliate numbers tended to be higher in April ( P= 0.055). Similarly, no change was detected in the bacterial and protozoal population composition by rRNA gene-based denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis analysis. Dominant methanogens were identified using a 16S rRNA gene library (97 clones) prepared from pooled PCR products from reindeer on October pasture ( n =5). Eleven of the 22 distinct operational taxonomic units (OTUs) generated exhibited a high degree of sequence similarity to methanogens affiliated with Methanobacteriales (eight OTUs), Methanomicrobiales (one OTU) and Methanosarcinales (two OTUs). The remaining 11 OTUs (53% of the clones) were associated with a cluster of uncultivated ruminal archaea. This study has provided important insights into the rumen microbiome of a high-arctic herbivorous animal living under harsh nutritional conditions, and evidence suggesting that host type affects the population size of ruminal methanogens.     

Sex-specific differences in reindeer calf behavior and predation vulnerability

According to reproductive strategy theory, males in polygamousbreeding systems should invest in morphological or behavioralfeatures that increase reproductive success. When the earlydevelopment of such traits conflicts with predator protection,we expect that male calves will exhibit risk-taking behavior,such as high activity level and increasing distance from mother,to a greater extent than female calves. We investigated sexdifferences in mother–calf distance, calf activity levels,and calf mortality in a semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifertarandus) population. The results show that male calves strayfarther away from their mothers, exhibit a higher level of locomotivebehavior in terms of play and walking, and are more vulnerableto predation than are female calves. Although mother–calfdistance increased over time in 1- to 6-month-old calves, noevidence was apparent for an increase in sex difference in mother–calfdistance over this period. The results suggest a trade-off betweenpredation vulnerability and investments in behavioral traitsthought to be important for future reproductive success andsuggest that these sex-related differences in behavior are apparentas early as 6 months of age.