Enantioselective synthesis of ibuprofen esters in AOT/isooctane microemulsions by Candida cylindracea lipase

The enantioselective esterification of racemic ibuprofen, catalyzed by a Candida cylindracea lipase, was studied in a water-in-oil microemulsion (AOT/isooctane). By using n-propanol as the alcohol, an optimal W(0) ([H(2)O]/[AOT] ratio) of 12 was found for the synthesis of n-propyl-ibuprofenate at room temperature. The lipase showed high preference for the S(+)-enantiomer of ibuprofen, which was esterified to the corresponding S(+)-ibuprofen ester. The R(-)-ibuprofen remained unesterified in the microemulsion. The calculated enantioselectivity value (E) for S-ibuprofen ester was greater than 150 (conversion 0.32). The enzyme activities of n-alcohols with different chain lengths (3-12) were compared, and it appeared that short- (propanol and butanol) and long-chained (decanol and dodecanol) alcohols were better substrates than the intermediate ones (pentanol, hexanol, and octanol). However, unlike secondary and tertiary alcohols, all of the tested primary alcohols were substrates for the lipase. The reversible reaction (i.e., the hydrolysis of racemic ibuprofen ester in the microemulsion) was also carried out enantioselectively by the enzyme. Only the S form of the ester was hydrolyzed to the corresponding S-ibuprofen. The reaction yield was, however, only about 4% after 10 days of reaction. The corresponding yield for the esterification of ibuprofen was about 35% (10 days). The high enantioselectivity displayed by the lipase in the microemulsion system was seen neither in a similar esterification reaction in a pure organic solvent system (isooctane) nor in the hydrolysis reaction in an aqueous system (buffer). The E value for S-ibuprofen ester in the isooctane system was 3.0 (conversion 0.41), and only 1.3 for S-ibuprofen in the hydrolysis reaction (conversion 0.32). The differences in enantioselectivity for the lipase in various systems are likely due to interfacial phenomena. In the microemulsion system, the water in which the enzyme is dissolved is separated from the solvent by a layer of surfactant molecules, thus creating an interface with a relatively large area. Such interfaces are not present in the pure organic solvent systems (no surfactant) nor in aqueous systems. (c) 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Activity of mushroom polyphenol oxidase in organic medium

A kinetic study of the activity of mushroom polyphenol oxidase in an organic system was carried out to obtain detailed enzyme kinetic data in relation to optimization of reaction conditions and substrate specificity. A simple method for consistent measurement of reaction rates in the heterogeneous enzyme/organic solvent system (consisting of immobilized polyphenol oxidase and a hydrated solution of the substrate in chloroform) was designed. The aqueous content of the system was optimized using p-cresol as the substrate. With this system, a crude extract of Agaricus bisporus was used to hydroxylate and oxidize a range of selected p-substituted phenolic substrates, yielding o-quinone products. Michaelis-Menten kinetics were used to obtain apparent K(M) and V(max) values with respect to each of these substrates. Results from this analysis indicated a correlation between the enzymic kinetic parameters obtained and the steric requirements of the substrates, which could be rationalized in terms of the restricted flexibility of the enzyme when it is in chloroform and also in terms of substrate and solvent hydrophobicity. In the course of the investigation UV molar absorption coefficients of several o-quinones were measured by a novel method: (1)H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy was employed to determine component concentrations in reaction mixtures resulting from the transformation of phenols by polyphenol oxidase in chloroform. Thus the UV molar absorption coefficients could be obtained directly, avoiding the necessity to isolate the water-sensitive, unstable o-quinones. (c) 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Pressure affects enzyme function in organic media

Pressure affects enzyme function in nonaqueous media. Activation volumes have been determined and provide evidence that the primary effect of pressure is to enhance the stripping of water off an enzyme in polar organic solvents and leads to decreased enzymatic activity. Activation volumes of subtilisin Carlsberg in organic solvents, particularly with the enzyme hydrated, have a larger magnitude than activation volumes determined in aqueous solutions. This study provides further evidence that enzymatic activity in polar organic solvents is dominated by the interaction of enzyme-bound water with the solvent. From a practical standpoint, however, the results of this study suggest that enzymatic catalysis in organic solvents may be controlled by the combined effects of pressure and enzyme hydration. (c) 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance investigation of solvent dependence of tyrosyl ring motion in an enzyme

Tyrosyl ring motions in alpha-lytic protease were investigated by solid-state deuterium nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy in lyophilized enzyme powder, in powder suspended in organic solvents, and in aqueous crystals. Ring flipping rates were determined by examining deuterium quadrupole echo line shapes. Of the four Tyr residues in the enzyme, one was flipping at the slow (< or =10(3) s(-1)) and one at the fast (> or =10(7) s(-1)) exchange limit of the line shape experiment in all the environments tested. Flipping rates of the remaining two Tyr residues depended markedly on the solvent, with the lowest flipping rates (< or =10(3) s(-1) for both residues) observed in the enzyme powder, whether dry or suspended in hydrophobic tert-butyl methyl ether. In hydrophilic dioxane and acetonitrile, the mobility of these residues increased to 10(4) and 10(5) s(-1). The latter rate rose further to 10(6) s(-1) in the hydrated hydrophilic solvents and to > or =10(7) s(-1) in aqueous crystals. The deuterium spectrum of native alpha-lytic protease was compared with that of the enzyme whose active center was covalently modified with an inhibitor, which binds next to Tyr-123, constraining its ring. This experiment revealed that water addition to acetonitrile specifically increased the flipping rate of this active center residue. Librational motions ("wobbling"), estimated by their effect on spin-lattice relaxation times, were slowest in the anhydrous solvents, intermediate in the hydrated solvents, and fastest in the aqueous crystals. Thus, alpha-lytic protease is more rigid in organic solvents than in water, as judged by mobility of its tyrosyl residues. Water stripping by hydrophilic solvents did not increase enzyme rigidity, nor were there clear correlations between mobility and either enzymatic activity or solvent dielectric constant.     

Initial soil organic carbon stocks govern changes in soil carbon: Reality or artifact?

Changes in soil organic carbon (SOC) storage have the potential to affect global climate; hence identifying environments with a high capacity to gain or lose SOC is of broad interest. Many cross-site studies have found that SOC-poor soils tend to gain or retain carbon more readily than SOC-rich soils. While this pattern may partly reflect reality, here we argue that it can also be created by a pair of statistical artifacts. First, soils that appear SOC-poor purely due to random variation will tend to yield more moderate SOC estimates upon resampling and hence will appear to accrue or retain more SOC than SOC-rich soils. This phenomenon is an example of regression to the mean. Second, normalized metrics of SOC change—such as relative rates and response ratios—will by definition show larger changes in SOC at lower initial SOC levels, even when the absolute change in SOC does not depend on initial SOC. These two artifacts create an exaggerated impression that initial SOC stocks are a major control on SOC dynamics. To address this problem, we recommend applying statistical corrections to eliminate the effect of regression to the mean, and avoiding normalized metrics when testing relationships between SOC change and initial SOC. Careful consideration of these issues in future cross-site studies will support clearer scientific inference that can better inform environmental management.     

Cover crops do not increase soil organic carbon stocks as much as has been claimed: What is the way forward?

When compared to virgin land (forest and grassland), croplands store significantly lower amounts of organic carbon (OC), mainly as a result of soil tillage, and decreased plant inputs to the soil over the whole year. Doubts have been expressed over how much reduced and zero tillage agriculture can increase OC in soils when the whole soil profile is considered. Consequently, cover-crops that are grown in-between crops instead of leaving soils bare appear as the “last man standing” in our quest to enhance cropland OC stocks. Despite the claim by numerous meta-analyses of a mean carbon sequestration rate by cover crops to be as high as 0.32 ± 0.08 ton C ha⁻¹ year⁻¹, the present analysis showed that all of the 37 existing field studies worldwide only sampled to a depth of 30 cm or less and did not compare treatments on the basis of equivalent soil mass. Thirteen studies presented information on OC content only and not on OC stocks, had inappropriate controls (n = 14), had durations of 3 years or lower (n = 5), considered only one to two data points per treatment (n = 4), or used cover crops as cash crops (i.e., grown longer that in-between two crops) instead of catch crops (n = 2), which in all cases constitutes shortcomings. Of the remaining six trials, four showed non-significant trends, one study displayed a negative impact of cover crops, and one study displayed a positive impact, resulting in a mean OC storage of 0.03 ton ha⁻¹ year⁻¹. Models and policies should urgently adapt to such new figure. Finally, more is to be done not only to improve the design of cover-crop studies for reaching sound conclusions but also to understand the underlying reasons of the low efficiency of cover crops for improved carbon sequestration into soils, with possible strategies being suggested.     

Reactions Catalyzed by Peg-Modified α-Chymotrypsin in Organic Solvents. Influence of Water Content and Degree of Modification

-Chymotrypsin was modified with cyanuric chloride activated monomethoxypolyethylene glycol (MPEG) with molecular weights 1900 and 5000. Using the higher molecular weight MPEG a product that was soluble in benzene at moderate levels of modification was obtained, whereas with MPEG 1900 almost all the enzyme's amino groups had to be modified for dissolving the conjugate. The catalytic activity decreased with increasing degree of substitution. Apparent V_max was considerably higher for the less modified enzyme preparation than for the more modified one, while K_m,app stayed almost constant. The modified enzyme was used for peptide synthesis. The reaction was dependent on the content of dissolved water. Both V_max,app and K_m,app increased with increasing water content. It was possible to achieve a process with complete conversion of substrate to dipeptide.     

Effect of Organic Acids on Reactions Catalyzed by Manganese Peroxidase from Phanerochaete chrysosporium

The effect of several organic acids on the oxidation of Mn(II) catalyzed by manganese peroxidase was studied. Reactivities of manganese peroxidase and chemically prepared Mn(III) organic acid complexes towards phenolic compounds were compared. If lactate appears to be the best complexant for manganese peroxidase activity, chemically prepared Mn(III)—lactate complex is a less effective oxidant towards phenolic compounds than other Mn(III)—complexes. Our results agree with the hypothesis that certain organic acids are involved in the catalytic cycle of manganese peroxidase. Malonate and lactate seem to be the most attractive complexants for practical applications of manganese peroxidase and were used in enzymatic treatment of hardwood kraft pulp. Bleaching of kraft pulp was studied and after alkaline extraction, a significant decrease of kappa number was measured. The bleaching was enhanced in lactate buffer.     

Accelerated organic matter decomposition in thermokarst lakes upon carbon and phosphorus inputs

Mineralization of dissolved organic matter (DOM) in thermokarst lakes plays a non-negligible role in the permafrost carbon (C) cycle, but remains poorly understood due to its complex interactions with external C and nutrient inputs (i.e., aquatic priming and nutrient effects). Based on large-scale lake sampling and laboratory incubations, in combination with ¹³C-stable-isotope labeling, optical spectroscopy, and high-throughput sequencing, we examined large-scale patterns and dominant drivers of priming and nutrient effects of DOM biodegradation across 30 thermokarst lakes along a 1100-km transect on the Tibetan Plateau. We observed that labile C and phosphorus (P) rather than nitrogen (N) inputs stimulated DOM biodegradation, with the priming and P effects being 172% and 451% over unamended control, respectively. We also detected significant interactive effects of labile C and nutrient supply on DOM biodegradation, with the combined labile C and nutrient additions inducing stronger microbial mineralization than C or nutrient treatment alone, illustrating that microbial activity in alpine thermokarst lakes is co-limited by both C and nutrients. We further found that the aquatic priming was mainly driven by DOM quality, with the priming intensity increasing with DOM recalcitrance, reflecting the limitation of external C as energy sources for microbial activity. Greater priming intensity was also associated with higher community-level ribosomal RNA gene operon (rrn) copy number and bacterial diversity as well as increased background soluble reactive P concentration. In contrast, the P effect decreased with DOM recalcitrance as well as with background soluble reactive P and ammonium concentrations, revealing the declining importance of P availability in mediating DOM biodegradation with enhanced C limitation but reduced nutrient limitation. Overall, the stimulation of external C and P inputs on DOM biodegradation in thermokarst lakes would amplify C-climate feedback in this alpine permafrost region.     

岭南垛基果林湿地土壤碳组分特征

岭南垛基果林湿地是珠三角地区典型的湿地类型之一,其对土壤碳汇的贡献值得关注。为探讨果林种植类型对土壤有机碳的影响,对广州垛基果林湿地内种植黄皮(Clausenalansium)(HP),龙眼(Dimocarpuslongan)(LY)、杨桃(Averrhoa carambola)(YT),龙眼和黄皮间种(LH),杨桃、龙眼和黄皮间种(YLH)共5种种植类型下的表层(0～20 cm)土壤碳组分进行研究。结果表明,不同的植被类型对土壤的总有机碳(SOC)、可溶性有机碳(DOC)、微生物生物量碳(MBC)、易氧化有机碳(ROC)、惰性碳(NLC)含量都有影响,LY的SOC含量最高(22.6 g/kg),显著高于YLH (P<0.05),且NLC含量显著高于LH和YLH (P<0.05)。NLC含量与土壤养分呈正相关,与土壤容重呈负相关。YT的MBC含量显著高于LY、HP、LH (P<0.05),且MBC/SOC显著高于HP、LY(P<0.05)。YLH模式下,土壤DOC含量和DOC/SOC显著高于其他植被类型(P<0.05)。LH的ROC/SOC显著高于HP和L...