Tansley Review No. 59 Leaf boundary layers

Studies of heat and mass exchange between leaves and their local environment are central to our understanding of plant-atmosphere interactions. The transfer across aerodynamic leaf boundary layers is generally described by non-dimensional expressions which reflect largely empirical adaptations of engineering models derived for flat plates. This paper reviews studies on leaves, and leaf models with varying degrees of abstraction, in free and forced convection. It discusses implecations of finding for leaf morphology as it affects – and is affected by – the local microclimate. Predictions of transfer from many leaves in plant communities are complicated by physical and physiological feedback mechanisms between leaves and their environment. Some common approaches, and the current challenge of integrating leaf-atmosphere interactions into models of global relevance, are also briefly addressed.     

Molecules and Morphology,Phylogenetics and Genetics

Various explanations can be offered for the incongruence between phylogenetic hypotheses resulting from morphological and molecular data sets. Of these, the possibility that incongruence may result from the mutation of major morphogenetic genes leading to dramatic morphological divergence unaccompanied by equivalent change of the phylogenetic marker molecule(s) used is discussed in detail. As evidence for this hypothesis, several examples for such incongruence are surveyed. It seems possible that in many cases the genetic basis of the morphological characters responsible for the incongruence found may be simple, and that the genes involved may be homologous to genes known from mutant systems. It is suggested that: 1. the systematic documentation of incongruence between molecular and morphological phylogenies may help to assess the frequency of evolutionary change through the mutation of major morphogenetic genes, and that 2. the identification of major morphological characters distinguishing closely related taxa with mutant phenotypes known from mutant systems eventually may allow an experimental approach to the problem of evolutionary change resulting from major genes. Natural taxa suspected to be the result of such processes could be changed morphologically through transformation with the relevant genes.     

Morphological differentiation in Carduelis finches: Adaptive vs. constraint models

In this study we show that morphological diversification in the avian genus Carduelis (Carduelinae) has to a large extent been conservative. Using multivariate methods, we found only minor deviations from the common (ancestral) body-plan. In particular, variation in bill morphology was found to be more conservative than variation in other parts of the body. We argue that constraint models of population differentiation can successfully account for the variation in bill morphology in this genus, but are less successful in accounting for variation in other traits. This can be interpreted as a result of long-term overall stabilizing selection for a certain bill morphology which is related to the way the birds open seeds. A trait combination that is adaptive on the evolutionary time scale may thus act as a constraint on changes in bill morphology on the microevolutionary scale. We conclude that the most parsimonious explanation for low divergence in bill morphology in this genus is that all species have retained the ancestral bill morphology. This may mean that each species chooses its environment rather than being moulded by it. This argument seems to apply to bill morphology, but other traits studied in this genus appear to have evolved in a less constrained fashion. A new index of morphometric integration is introduced to describe covariance structures.     

桑白蚧的重要寄生蜂——桑白蚧恩蚜小蜂的鉴别与利用

桑白蚧恩蚜小蜂Encarsia(=Prospaltella)berlesel(Howard)是寄生桑白蚧Pseudaulacaspls pentagona(Targioni-Tozzctti)的重要寄生蜂,许多国家进行了引进移植,对控制桑白蚧的为害取得明显的成效．本记述了桑白蚧恩蚜小蜂形态特征的鉴别。以及各国引进利用的概况．并讨论了利用寄生蜂防治桑白蚧的重要性．     

欧报春二型花柱的繁育特性研究

二型花柱植物通常具有自交不亲和性,在不同植物中所表现的可育性不同。欧报春(Primula vulgaris)是典型的二型花柱植物,为了探究欧报春的繁育特性,通过温室栽培,对欧报春的长花柱和短花柱的花部特征、花粉和花柱形态、花粉活力、柱头可授性、花粉/胚珠比、杂交指数、杂交亲和性、花粉管观察进行研究。结果表明,(1)长花柱和短花柱的花冠直径、花冠筒长度、柱头高度、花药高度和花筒中部直径均表现出两型性;(2)花粉和柱头观察发现花粉极轴长、花粉赤道轴长、花柱直径、柱头乳突细胞和花粉数量均有差异;(3)长花柱的花粉/胚珠比为384.20,短花柱为369.70,属于兼性异交类型;长花柱和短花柱的花粉活力和柱头可授性能在较长时间内维持较高活力;(4)长花柱杂交指数值为5,短花柱为4,表明繁育系统类型为异交,部分自交亲和,需要传粉者;6种授粉组合均能结实,异型花间授粉的结实数明显高于同型自花授粉和异株同型授粉;短花柱为母本的异型花间授粉组合亲和性优于其他组合;欧报春存在自交不亲和性,长花柱的自交不亲和性低于短花柱。     

茜草属药用植物的研究——Ⅲ.11种茜草属药材的组织形成学研究

本文除对主流商品茜草的生药性状和组织构造作了较全面的描述,还利用图、表及照片列出狭叶茜草P.truppeliana Loes、Loeb、小红参(滇茜草)R.yunnomensis Dtels、中华茜草R.chinensis Regel et maack、大叶茜草R.schumanniana Pritz、按针叶茜草R.lanceolata Hayata、大茜草R.magna Hisao、钩毛茜草R.oncotrucha Hand-Mazz、红花茜草R.podantha Diels、金剑草R.alata Wall、新疆茜草(洋茜草)R.tinctorum L等10种与茜草Rubia cordifolia L的主要区别点,并作药材检索表,以利鉴别。     

THE FUNCTIONAL BASIS OF NATURAL SELECTION FOR VERTEBRAL TRAITS OF LARVAE IN THE STICKLEBACK GASTEROSTEUS ACULEATUS

Previous studies have demonstrated selective predation for vertebral traits of larvae in the stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus. I tested the hypothesis that this selection results from a direct functional advantage to particular vertebral phenotypes by direct measurement of the burst swimming performance of larvae. Within a narrow window of lengths, burst speed did depend on vertebral phenotype. As in the previous predation experiments, performance was related more directly to the ratio of abdominal to caudal vertebrae (VR) than to the total number of vertebrae (VN), and the optimal VR decreased as larval length increased. Changes with length in the vertebral phenotype frequencies of wild larvae provided evidence of selection for VR and for VN in the wild. Larvae with particular VR increased in frequency in the wild at just those lengths when their relative performance was superior in the laboratory. The observed pattern of length-dependent selection for vertebral number provides an explanation for the widespread trends in vertebral number that occur among populations of related fishes.     

SELECTIVE PREDATION FOR VERTEBRAL PHENOTYPE IN GASTEROSTEUS ACULEATUS: REVERSAL IN THE DIRECTION OF SELECTION AT DIFFERENT LARVAL SIZES

Variation in the number of vertebrae is widespread in fishes, and is partly genetic in origin. The adaptive significance of this variation was tested by exposing larvae of the threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) to predation by sunfish (Lepomis gibbosus). Two vertebral characters were considered: the total number (VN) and the ratio of abdominal to caudal vertebrae (VR). Predation was selective for both characters, but selection was more directly related to VR than to VN. The direction of selection depended on larval length: as length increased, optimal VR decreased. Total selection for VR was a combination of direct selection and an indirect effect of selection acting on a correlated trait, the ratio of precaudal to caudal length. Direct and indirect selection were in opposing directions at a given larval length. Variation in vertebral number may be maintained in populations partly because the strength of selection is reduced by opposing directions between direct and indirect selection, and between total selection at different larval lengths.     

Predation impact of Leptodora kindtii on population dynamics and morphology of Bosmina fatalis and B. longirostris in mesocosms

1. We assessed the impact of predation by the invertebrate predator Leptodora kindtii on Bosmina longirostris and B. fatalis, which show seasonal and reciprocal succession patterns in Lake Suwa, in a mesocosm experiment using 20‐L tanks with or without the predator under different food conditions. We also analysed morphological responses of the two Bosmina species to the predator in the tanks. 2. Bosmina fatalis dominated B. longirostris regardless of predator presence under high food density. However, the presence of Leptodora induced the dominance of B. fatalis more rapidly than its absence. On the contrary, no dominance of B. fatalis was observed in tanks with low food density, irrespective of the presence of the predator. Only B. fatalis showed morphological changes in response to the presence of Leptodora. 3. Mucrone length and antennule shape (angle between body and antennule and angle between antennules) showed marked responses at both high and low food densities, but antennule length responded only at high food density. Mucrone length seems to be a more effective defence against Leptodora. 4. The results suggest that B. fatalis is a superior competitor against B. longirostris and is more resistant to Leptodora predation, especially in good food conditions. The repeatedly observed seasonal succession of the two Bosmina species in the eutrophic Lake Suwa – the replacement of B. longirostris by B. fatalis following the occurrence of abundant Leptodora– seems to be caused by the selective predation of Leptodora on B. longirostris as well as the competitive ability of B. fatalis.     

Development of Media and Automated Liquid Fermentation Methods to Produce Desiccation-Tolerant Propagules ofTrichoderma harzianum

A suitable medium was developed from modified Richard's medium plus V8 juice (RM8) to produce high levels of desiccation-tolerant conidia ofTrichoderma harzianumstrain 1295-22. The addition of 9% (v/v) glycerol to RM8 improved both biomass production and desiccation tolerance of the conidia ofT. harzianum.This medium was then used in a laboratory scale fermenter (1.5 liter) to determine optimal operating conditions. The optimal temperature for conidial production and desiccation tolerance improvement in the fermenter was 32°C when dissolved oxygen was maintained at 50% saturation of air, and the stirring rate was 1000 revolutions per minute. The initial water potential of the medium (with 9% glycerol) was −3.7 MPa, the pH was 6, and neither was controlled during fermentation. Changes in medium pH and dissolved oxygen were associated with the stages of morphological development and conidiation. The pH of the medium decreased concurrently with germ-tube elongation and mycelium development and then increased to 6.0–6.2 at phialide formation. Intensive conidiation occurred at pH 6.3–6.5 and reached its maximal level at 6.9–7.1. Changes in pH values could be used as indicators to monitor the morphological development and conidiation ofT. harzianumduring fermentation. The use of a 48-h-old culture inoculum, rather than conidial inoculum, to start fermentation reduced the time required to complete the shift from vegetative growth to phialide formation. Intensive conidiation occurred immediately after the addition of culture inoculum and reached maximum levels within 68 h of fermentation. Dry weight of biomass increased with the duration of fermentation and was greatest at 96 h. However, no improvements in conidia/gram and CFU/gram were achieved after 72 h of fermentation. The desiccation tolerance of conidia harvested at 72 or 96 h was significantly (P = 0.05) greater than that of conidia harvested at 48 h of fermentation. Results obtained from this study could be used for further scale-up of the fermentation process.