X-ray structure of Glu 53 human lysozyme.

The three-dimensional structure of a modified human lysozyme (HL), Glu 53 HL, in which Asp 53 was replaced by Glu, has been determined at 1.77 A resolution by X-ray analysis. The backbone structure of Glu 53 HL is essentially the same as the structure of wild-type HL. The root mean square difference for the superposition of equivalent C alpha atoms is 0.141 A. Except for the Glu 53 residue, the structure of the active site region is largely conserved between Glu 53 HL and wild-type HL. However, the hydrogen bond network differs because of the small shift or rotation of side chain groups. The carboxyl group of Glu 53 points to the carboxyl group of Glu 35 with a distance of 4.7 A between the nearest carboxyl oxygen atoms. A water molecule links these carboxyl groups by a hydrogen bond bridge. The active site structure explains well the fact that the binding ability for substrates does not significantly differ between Glu 53 HL and wild-type HL. On the other hand, the positional and orientational change of the carboxyl group of the residue 53 caused by the mutation is considered to be responsible for the low catalytic activity (ca. 1%) of Glu 53 HL. The requirement of precise positioning for the carboxyl group suggests the possibility that the Glu 53 residue contributes more than a simple electrostatic stabilization of the intermediate in the catalysis reaction.     

Direct observation by X-ray analysis of the tetrahedral "intermediate" of aspartic proteinases.

We report the X-ray analysis at 2.0 A resolution for crystals of the aspartic proteinase endothiapepsin (EC 3.4.23.6) complexed with a potent difluorostatone-containing tripeptide renin inhibitor (CP-81,282). The scissile bond surrogate, an electrophilic ketone, is hydrated in the complex. The pro-(R) (statine-like) hydroxyl of the tetrahedral carbonyl hydrate is hydrogen-bonded to both active-site aspartates 32 and 215 in the position occupied by a water in the native enzyme. The second hydroxyl oxygen of the hydrate is hydrogen-bonded only to the outer oxygen of Asp 32. These experimental data provide a basis for a model of the tetrahedral intermediate in aspartic proteinase-mediated cleavage of the amide bond. This indicates a mechanism in which Asp 32 is the proton donor and Asp 215 carboxylate polarizes a bound water for nucleophilic attack. The mechanism involves a carboxylate (Asp 32) that is stabilized by extensive hydrogen bonding, rather than an oxyanion derivative of the peptide as in serine proteinase catalysis.     

Mechanism of Cl- sensitivity in internal ion receptors of the leech; an inward current gated off by Cl- in the nephridial nerve cells

Summary The nephridial nerve cells of the leech, Hirudo medicinalis, 34 sensory cells, each associated with one nephridium, are sensitive to changes in extracellular Cl^- concentration, an important factor in ion homeostasis. Using single-electrode current- and voltage clamp and ion substitution techniques, the specificity and mechanism of Cl^- sensitivity of the nephridial nerve cell was studied in isolated preparations. Increase of the normally low external Cl^- concentration leads to immediate and sustained hyperpolarization, decrease of the frequency of bursts and decrease of membrane conductance. The response is halogen specific: Cl^- can be replaced by Br^–, but not by organic mono- or divalent anions or inorganic divalent anions.At physiological Cl^- concentrations (36mM extra-cellular Cl^-), the nephridial nerve cell has a high resting conductance for Cl^- and the membrane potential is governed by Cl^-. In high extracellular Cl^- concentrations (110–130 mM), membrane conductance is low, most likely due to the gating off of Cl^- channels. Under these conditions, membrane potential is dominated by the K⁺ distribution and the nephridial nerve cell hyperpolarizes towards E_K.Abbreviations NNC nephridial nerve cell - V _m membrane potential - E _Cl(k) equilibrium potential for Cl (K) - IV-curve current-voltage relationship     

Voltage-dependent channel formation by rods of helical polypeptides

Summary The voltage-dependence of channel formation by alamethicin and its natural analogues can be described by a dipole flip-flop gating model, based on electric field-induced transbilayer orientational movements of single molecules. These field-induced changes in orientation result from the large permanent dipole moment of alamethicin, which adopts -helical conformation in hydrophobic medium. It was, therefore, supposed that the only structural requirement for voltage-dependent formation of alamethicin-type channels might be a rigid lipophilic helical segment of minimum length.In order to test this hypothesis we synthesized a family of lipophilic polypeptides—Boc-(Ala-Aib-Ala-Aib-Ala) _n -OMe,n=1–4—which adopt -helical conformation forn=2–4 and studied their interaction with planar lipid bilayers. Surprisingly, despite their large difference in chain length, all four polypeptides showed qualitatively similar behavior. At low field strength of the membrane electric field these polypeptides induce a significant, almost voltage-independent increase of the bilayer conductivity. At high field strength, however, a strongly voltage-dependent conductance increase occurs similar to that observed with alamethicin. It results from the opening of a multitude of ion translocating channels within the membrane phase.The steady-state voltage-dependent conductance depends on the 8^th–9^th power of polypeptide concentration and involves the transfer of 4–5 formal elementary charges. From the power dependences on polypeptide concentration and applied voltage of the time constants in voltage-jump current-relaxation experiments, it is concluded that channels could be formed from preexisting dodecamer aggregates by the simultaneous reorientation of six formal elementary charges. Channels exhibit large conductance values of several nS, which become larger towards shorter polypeptide chain length. A mean channel diameter of 19 Å is estimated corresponding roughly to the lumen diameter of a barrel comprised of 10 -helical staves. Similar to experiments with the N-terminal Boc-derivative of alamethicin we did not observe the burst sequence of nonintegral conductance steps typical of natural (N-terminal Ac-Aib)-alamethicin. Saturation in current/voltage curves as well as current inactivation in voltage-jump current-relaxation experiments are found. This may be understood by assuming that channels are generated as dodecamers but, while reaching the steady state, reduce their size to that of an octamer or nonamer. We conclude that the overall behavior of these synthetic polypeptides is very similar to that of alamethicin. They exhibit the same concentration and voltage-dependences but lack the stabilizing principle of resolved channel states characteristic of alamethicin.     

Complementation analysis of the inorganic carbon concentrating mechanism of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

Summary Six independently isolated mutants of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii that require elevated CO₂ for photoautotrophic growth were tested by complementation analysis. These mutants are likely to be defective in some aspect of the algal concentrating mechanism for inorganic carbon as they exhibit CO₂ fixation and inorganic carbon accumulation properties different from the wild-type. Four of the six mutants defined a single complementation group and appear to be defective in an intracellular carbonic anhydrase. The other two mutations represent two additional complementation groups.Abbreviations HS high salt medium which has 13 mM phosphate at pH 6.8 - HSA high salt plus 36 mM acetate medium - YA high salt medium with 4 g yeast extract per L and 36mM acetate - Arg arginine - cia^- CO₂ accumulation mutants that cannot grow on low CO₂ - C_i inorganic carbon (CO₂+HCO _- ³ ) - CA carbonic anhydrase - mt mating type Supported in part by the McKnight Foundation and by NSF grant PCM 8005917 and published as journal article 11924 from the Michigan State Agriculatural Experiment Station     

Evidence for titratable gating charges controlling the voltage dependence of the outer mitochondrial membrane channel,VDAC

Summary A voltage-dependent anion-selective channel, VDAC, is found in outer mitochondrial membranes. VDAC's conductance is known to decrease as the transmembrane voltage is increased in either the positive or negative direction. Charged groups on the channel may be responsible for this voltage dependence by allowing the channel to respond to an applied electric field. If so, then neutralization of these charges would eliminate the voltage dependence. Channels in planar lipid bilayers which behaved normally at pH 6 lost much of their voltage dependence at high pH. Raising the pH reduced the steepness of the voltage dependence and raised the voltage needed to close half the channels. In contrast, the energy difference between the open and closed state in the absence of a field was changed very little by the elevated pH. The groups being titrated had an apparent pK of 10.6. From the pK and chemical modification, lysine epsilon amino groups are the most likely candidates responsible for VDAC's ability to respond to an applied electric field.     

The magnesium protein interaction in nucleotide complexes of phos-phoglycerate kinase

The X-ray structure determination of yeast phosphoglycerate kinase and subsequent substrate binding studies have helped to define the binding sites for the triose and nucleoside phosphate substrates. This communication deals with one feature of the binding site—the location of an aspartic acid residue close to the phosphoryl binding site of the nucleotide substrate—and relates this and other structural features of the active site to the properties of this enzyme as deduced from nuclear magnetic resonance studies.     

Formation of autophagosomes in the pinealocytes of the rat and Mongolian gerbil (Meriones unguiculatus): A lysosome wrapping mechanism?

Summary Autophagosome formation in rat and gerbil pinealocytes is described. It starts with the setting up of a tubular acid phosphatase-rich cisterna which gradually wraps around cytoplasmic areas to be catabolized. In light of obtained findings, it seems that the autophagosome formation in pinealocytes is a type of lysosome wrapping mechanism.     

Termination of parental care due to small clutch size in the temperate damselfish,Chromis notata

Synopsis Reproductive behavior of the temperate damselfish, Chromis notata, was investigated on the island of Mukaishima, Japan, almost daily during the breeding season in 1982. Both males and females repeated reproductive cycles many times during the breeding season. Females had a strong tendency to spawn a whole clutch on one nest during a few hours. The average number of eggs which a male gained per reproductive cycle was estimated at 38560 (480–131100 eggs). Males ordinarily cared for eggs until just prior to hatching, but abandoned more than half of the nests with the eggs numbering less than 11568. Contribution 207 from the Mukaishima Marine Biological Station.     

Social and reproductive behavior of three mouthbrooding cardinalfishes,Apogon doederleini,A. niger and A. notatus

Synopsis Social and reproductive behavior of three paternal mouthbrooding cardinalfishes (Apogonidae) were investigated in the shallow marine waters of Shirahama, Japan. The solitary species Apogon doederleini and A. niger bred in transient pairs, in which a male and female associated for only a few hours of each afternoon on less than 5 successive days. The prespawning behavior was the same as the courtship display on days prior to spawning. After spawning, egg-incubating males were usually left alone. The gregarious species Apogon notatus formed territorial lasting pairs, which resided at given sites from dawn to dusk on each day during a period of a month or more. After spawning, the egg-incubating male either continued to stay with his mate in the territory, or left it to enter into an aggregation. In the latter case, the female continued to reside in the territory, pairing with a new male whom she brought from an aggregation. It is suggested that in paternal apogonids the prolonged pair bond and territoriality should have developed only in gregarious species as secondary adaptation for reproductive success: to avoid conspecific interference during spawning.