Discovery of benzamide-hydroxypyridinone hybrids as potent multi-targeting agents for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease

A novel class of benzamide-hydroxypyridinone (HPO) derivatives were innovatively designed, synthesised, and biologically evaluated as potential multitargeting candidates for the treatment of Alzheimer''s disease (AD) through pharmacophores-merged approaches based on lead compounds 18d, benzyloxy phenyl analogs, and deferiprone (DFP). These hybrids possessed potent Monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) inhibition as well as excellent iron chelation, with pFe³⁺ values ranging from 18.13 to 19.39. Among all the compounds, 8g exhibited the most potent selective MAO-B inhibitor (IC₅₀ = 68.4 nM, SI = 213). Moreover, 8g showed favourable pharmacokinetic properties and had great potential to penetrate the BBB in silico and PAMPA-BBB assay. Molecular modelling showed that 8g could adopt an extended conformation and have more enhanced interactions with MAO-B than 18d. In vitro and in vivo assays demonstrated that 8g remarkably resisted Aβ-induced oxidation and ameliorated cognitive impairment induced by scopolamine. Taken collectively, these results suggest that compound 8g is a potential multifunctional candidate for anti-AD treatment.     

Primary cells derived from Tuberous Sclerosis Complex patients show autophagy alteration in the haploinsufficiency state

Tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) is an autosomal dominant cancer predisposition disorder caused by heterozygous mutations in TSC1 or TSC2 genes and characterized by mTORC1 hyperactivation. TSC-associated tumors develop after loss of heterozygosity mutations and their treatment involves the use of mTORC1 inhibitors. We aimed to evaluate cellular processes regulated by mTORC1 in TSC cells with different mutations before tumor development. Flow cytometry analyses were performed to evaluate cell viability, cell cycle and autophagy in non-tumor primary TSC cells with different heterozygous mutations and in control cells without TSC mutations, before and after treatment with rapamycin (mTORC1 inhibitor). We did not observe differences in cell viability and cell cycle between the cell groups. However, autophagy was reduced in mutated cells. After rapamycin treatment, mutated cells showed a significant increase in the autophagy process (p=0.039). We did not observe differences between cells with distinct TSC mutations. Our main finding is the alteration of autophagy in non-tumor TSC cells. Previous studies in literature found autophagy alterations in tumor TSC cells or knock-out animal models. We showed that autophagy could be an important mechanism that leads to TSC tumor formation in the haploinsufficiency state. This result could guide future studies in this field.     

The effect of some phenolic compounds on the activity of 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase from tobacco tissue cultures

Anodic polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of extracts of cultures of tobacco tissue Nicotiana tabacum W-38 revealed the presence of two 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenases (6PGD). The slow and the fast anodic migrating zones were designated I and II, respectively. After purification, enzymes from both zones exhibited no major differences in their affinity towards 6-phosphogluconate (6PG) or NADP⁺, and were found to have approximately the same pH optima and MWs (69 000–72 000). The coumarins scopoletin and esculetin showed some inhibitory effect on each isozyme at 0.4 mM. Below 0.3 mM, however, esculetin stimulated the activity of zone I when lower amounts of 6PG (S_0.25) were used. The glucosylated compounds, scopolin and esculin, were much more inhibitory towards the 6PGDs than their respective aglycones. Ferulic, p-coumaric and caffeic acids seemed to have an inhibitory effect dependent on 6PG concentration. A larger inhibition was observed in each case at the lower 6PG levels used. Zone I activity appeared to be inhibited to a greater degree than zone II activity by 0.4 mM p-coumaric acid with low 6PG. Of the phenolic compounds tested, chlorogenic acid was most effective, completely inhibiting the enzyme activity at 0.4 mM. Of the non-phenolic compounds investigated, glucose 1,6-diphosphate inhibited both isoenzymes of 6PGD at lower 6PG concentrations. On the other hand, 2,3-diphosphoglycerate activated both isoenzymes up to 200% of their original activity.     

Polymorphic Cytochromes P450 and Drugs Used in Psychiatry

1. The cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, CYP2D6, CYP2C19, and CYP2C9, display polymorphism. CYP2D6 and CYP2C19 have been studied extensively, and despite their low abundance in the liver, they catalyze the metabolism of many drugs.2. CYP2D6 has numerous allelic variants, whereas CYP2C19 has only two. Most variants are translated into inactive, truncated protein or fail to express protein.3. CYP2C9 is expressed as the wild-type enzyme and has two variants, in each of which one amino acid residue has been replaced.4. The nucleotide base sequences of the cDNAs of the three polymorphic genes and their variants have been determined, and the proteins derived from these genes have been characterized.5. An absence of CYP2D6 and/or CYP2C19 in an individual produces a poor metabolizer (PM) of drugs that are substrates of these enzymes.6. When two drugs that are substrates for a polymorphic CYP enzyme are administered concomitantly, each will compete for that enzyme and competitively inhibit the metabolism of the other substrate. This can result in toxicity.7. Patients can be readily phenotyped or genotyped to determine their CYP2D6 or CYP2C19 enzymatic status. Poor metabolizers (PMs), extensive metabolizers (EMs), and ultrarapid metabolizers (URMs) can be identified.8. Numerous substrates and inhibitors of CYP2D6, CYP2C19, and CYP2C9 are identified.9. An individual's diet and age can influence CYP enzyme activity.10. CYP2D6 polymorphism has been associated with the risk of onset of various illnesses, including cancer, schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and epilepsy.     

Engineering Natural and Synthetic Resistance for Nematode Management

Bioengineering strategies are being developed that will provide specific and durable resistance against plant-parasitic nematodes in crops. The strategies come under three categories: (i) transfer of natural resistance genes from plants that have them to plants that do not, to mobilize the defense mechanisms in susceptible crops; (ii) interference with the biochemical signals that nematodes exchange with plants during parasitic interactions, especially those resulting in the formation of specialized feeding sites for the sedentary endoparasites—many nematode genes and many plant genes are potential targets for manipulation; and (iii) expression in plant cells of proteins toxic to nematodes.     

Regulation of p21(cip1) expression by growth factors and the extracellular matrix reveals a role for transient ERK activity in G1 phase.

We have examined the regulation of p21(cip1) by soluble mitogens and cell anchorage as well as the relationship between the expression of p21(cip1) and activation of the ERK subfamily of MAP kinases. We find that p21(cip1) expression in G1 phase can be divided into two discrete phases: an initial induction that requires growth factors and the activation of ERK, and then a subsequent decline that is enhanced by cell anchorage in an ERK-independent manner. In contrast to the induction of cyclin D1, the induction of p21(cip1) is mediated by transient ERK activity. Comparative studies with wild-type and p21(cip1)-null fibroblasts indicate that adhesion-dependent regulation of p21(cip1) is important for proper control of cyclin E-cdk2 activity. These data lead to a model in which mitogens and anchorage act in a parallel fashion to regulate G1 phase expression of p21(cip1). They also show that (a) growth factors and growth factor/extracellular matrix cooperation can have different roles in regulating G1 phase ERK activity and (b) both transient and sustained ERK signals have functionally significant roles in controlling cell cycle progression through G1 phase.     

Removal of phenolic inhibitors from lignocellulose hydrolysates using laccases for the production of fuels and chemicals

Lignocellulose is the most abundant biopolymer in the biosphere. It is inexpensive and therefore considered an attractive feedstock to produce biofuels and other biochemicals. Thermochemical and/or enzymatic pretreatment is used to release fermentable monomeric sugars. However, a variety of inhibitory by-products such as weak acids, furans, and phenolics that inhibit cell growth and fermentation are also released. Phenolic compounds are among the most toxic components in lignocellulosic hydrolysates and slurries derived from lignin decomposition, affecting overall fermentation processes and production yields and productivity. Ligninolytic enzymes have been shown to lower inhibitor concentrations in these hydrolysates, thereby enhancing their fermentability into valuable products. Among them, laccases, which are capable of oxidizing lignin and a variety of phenolic compounds in an environmentally benign manner, have been used for biomass delignification and detoxification of lignocellulose hydrolysates with promising results. This review discusses the state of the art of different enzymatic approaches to hydrolysate detoxification. In particular, laccases are used in separate or in situ detoxification steps, namely in free enzyme processes or immobilized by cell surface display technology to improve the efficiency of the fermentative process and consequently the production of second-generation biofuels and bio-based chemicals.     

Extracellular calcium influx stimulates metalloproteinase cleavage and secretion of heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor independently of protein kinase C

The phorbol ester, tetradecanoyl-phorbol 13-acetate (TPA), stimulates rapid proteolytic processing of the transmembrane, pro- form of heparin-binding epidermal growth factor-like growth factor (HB-EGF) at cell surfaces, suggesting the involvement of protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms in the HB-EGF secretion mechanism. To test this possibility, we expressed a chimeric protein, consisting of proHB-EGF fused to placental alkaline phosphatase (AP) near the amino terminus of processed HB-EGF, in NbMC-2 prostate epithelial cells. The proHB-EGF-AP chimera localized to plasma membranes and functioned as a diphtheria toxin receptor. Secreted HB-EGF-AP bound to heparin and exhibited potent growth factor activity. The presence of the AP moiety allowed highly quantitative measurements of cleavage-secretion responses of proHB-EGF to extracellular stimuli. As expected, rapid secretion of HB-EGF-AP was induced in a time- and dose-dependent manner by TPA. However, this was also observed with the Ca²⁺ionophore, ionomycin, suggesting the involvement of extracellular Ca²⁺ ions in the secretion mechanism. Ionomycin-induced secretion was inhibited by extracellular calcium chelation but not by the PKC inhibitors, GF109203X, staurosporine, or chelerythrine. The TPA-mediated secretion effect was inhibited by staurosporine, GF109203X, and by pretreatment with TPA, but not by calcium chelation. A small secretion response was induced by thapsigargin, which releases Ca²⁺ from intracellular stores, but this was completely eliminated by extracellular calcium chelation. Ionomycin- and TPA-induced HB-EGF-AP secretion was not dependent on the presence of the proHB-EGF cytoplasmic domain and was specifically inhibited by the metalloproteinase inhibitors 1,10-phenanthroline and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1). These data demonstrate that extracellular Ca²⁺ influx activates a membrane-associated metalloproteinase to process proHB-EGF by a pathway that does not require PKC. J. Cell. Biochem. 69:143–153, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Extracellular matrix dynamics in heart failure: A prospect for gene therapy

In chronic congestive heart failure, an illness affecting more than 4 million Americans, there is impairment of myocardial extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling. Failing human ventricular myocardium contains activated matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), which are involved in adverse ECM remodeling. Our studies support the concept that impaired ECM remodeling and MMP activation are, in part, responsible for the cardiac structural deformation and heart failure. There is no known program that has declared its aim the investigation of the role of ECM gene therapy in heart failure. The development of transgenic technology, and emerging techniques for in vivo gene transfer, suggest a strategy for improving cardiac function by overexpressing or downregulation of the ECM components such as MMPs, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases (TIMPs), transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β), decorin, and collagen in cardiomyopathy and heart failure. J. Cell. Biochem. 68:403–410, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Up-regulation of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-3 gene expression by TGF-β in articular chondrocytes is mediated by serine/threonine and tyrosine kinases

The balance between matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) regulates extracellular matrix turn-over in normal animal development, cancer cell metastasis, atherosclerotic plaque rupture and erosion of arthritic cartilage. Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β), an inducer of matrix synthesis, potently enhances mRNA and protein of a recently characterized MMP inhibitor, TIMP-3, in bovine articular chondrocytes. We examined the implication of protein kinases in the TGF-β-mediated induction of TIMP-3 expression by utilizing activators and inhibitors of these enzymes. Protein kinase A activators, dibutyryl cyclic AMP, or forskolin had little or no effect, respectively, while phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA), a PKC activator, increased TIMP-3 gene expression. H7, a serine/threonine protein kinase inhibitor, markedly reduced the response of TIMP-3 gene to TGF-β. Furthermore, two protein tyrosine kinase inhibitors, genistein and herbimycin A, inhibited TGF-β induction of TIMP-3. H7 and genistein also suppressed TGF-β-induced TIMP-3 protein expression. These results suggest that TGF-β signaling for TIMP-3 gene induction involves H7-sensitive serine/threonine kinase as well as herbimycin A- and genistein-sensitive protein tyrosine kinases. J. Cell. Biochem. 70:517–527, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.