Controlling fungi that colonize eggs of the western corn rootworm in the laboratory

Females of the polyphagous, ectoparasitoid, Exeristes roborator (F.) (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae), learned an olfactory stimulus associated with an artificial host microhabitat in the laboratory. In a two-choice olfactometer, females previously given hosts only in association with one stimulus showed a greater tendency to visit exclusively, and spend time in, chambers containing a source of that stimulus, than control females. Learning of olfactory cues could act in conjunction with learning of visual cues to allow the parasitoid to identify accurately microhabitats that experience has taught it contain hosts. It could also allow the parasitoid to identify these resources when visual cues are not available.

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Résumé Nous avons supposé que les femelles polyphages de l'ichneumonide ectoparasite, E. roborator (F.), pourraient apprendre les stimuli olfactifs liés au microhabitat artificiel dans lequel elles avaient attaqué leur hôte. 4 lots de femelles ont été placés dans des conditions différentes: le microhabitat des hôtes du premier lot était du Parafilm imprégné d'odeur de pomme; celui des hôtes du second était un Parafilm non traité. Les hôtes des lots témoins 3 et 4 étaient présentés respectivement avec les deux microhabitats et sans aucun microhabitat. Placées dans un olfactomètre statique contenant du Parafilm traité à la pomme et du Parafilm vierge, des femelles du lot 1 ont eu tendance à ne visiter que l'enceinte contenant du Parafilm traité à la pomme, elles ont passé environ 75% de leur temps dans cette enceinte. A l'opposé, les femelles des 3 autres lots ont eu tendance à ne visiter que l'enceinte sans odeur de pomme, et elles n'ont passé que 34 à 46% de leur temps dans l'enceinte traitée à la pomme. Les différences entre les réactions du lot 1 et des autres lots sont significatives, mais entre les lots 2, 3 et 4, elles ne le sont pas. Une expérience témoin confirme que les préférences des femelles du lot 1 ne sont pas innées; E. roborator a donc appris à reconnaitre les stimuli olfactifs du microhabitat sentant la pomme. L'apprentissage des signaux olfactifs liés au microhabitat de l'hôte pourrait s'effectuer seul ou en relation avec l'apprentissage de signaux visuels permettant au parasitoïde d'identifier avec précision les microhabitats d'un hôte convenable.

     

The nature and role of learning in the orientation and migratory behavior of fishes

Synopsis Fish migration may be viewed as the product of two processes; the selection and tracking of optimal environmental conditions through time and space, and the use of predictive information about environmental structure to bias movements towards a goal. The establishment and maintenance of directional bias is based on the interaction of experience and instinct. The preoccupation of much fish orientation research with innate fixed patterns of behavior on one hand and hydrodynamics on the other has led us to underestimate the possibility that orientation is a flexible process relying on developmental sequences, calibration of the motor-sensory interaction based on experience and the learning of environmental pattern. Evidence illustrating how experience and learning may influence the direction of movement and how the goal is recognized is presented according to two general categories: (a) imprinting and early experience and (b), spatial learning, including the social transmission of migratory routes and directions. In the first category, the olfactory hypothesis of salmon homing is briefly reviewed and new data presented describing olfactory imprinting in Atlantic salmon,Salmo salar. In the second category, evidence is presented demonstrating the modifiability of sun-compass orientation and the ability of some fish species to learn the spatial distribution of landmarks. The role of social transmission in the migration of coral reef fishes is reviewed. The possible role of these learning phenomena in the formation of familiar area maps, route-based and location-based navigation and the critical distance factor is considered. The relationship between life history and the nature of learning in migratory orientation is discussed     

Animal learning and intelligence

The ability to learn is common to most animal species: the need to exploit past experience being obviously extremely important for survival, many animals have evolved ways of coping with it. Although the complexity of learning needed for optimal survival may be different in different species, the basic mechanisms appear to be fairly constant even in phylogenetically distant ones. This homogeneity across species in learning mechanisms is in some ways surprising in view of the large phylogenetic differences and of the considerable variability not only in the general plan of their bodily structures, but also, more specifically, in their neural organization and in their behavioral adaptations. One possible explanation is that animals have acquired learning very precociously, and that the original and basic mechanisms have proved so efficient and faultproof as to be preserved from then on without any significant modification. Most researchers of the subject seem to accept the equation «intelligence=learning capability», operationally very useful because it leads to a variety of formal tests. Some researchers, stressing that behavior is subject to the same evolutionary principles as any other character of the organism and acknowledging some problems in the accepted laws of learning, have tried to find a satisfactory answer to the question of animal intelligence by attempting a synthesis between the concepts of animal learning psychology and those of ethology. To some extent, dissatisfaction with established learning theories originated within the theories themselves: the study of phenomena such as autoshaping, selective attention, preferential learning of some responses amongst the many possible, conditioned learning of taste aversions, etc. Further difficulties for conditioning theories arose from the discovery of ethological phenomena. Other researchers have attempted to check the hypothesis that animals possess cognition. A number of complex experimental situtations have been devised to this purpose, but the results still are far from conclusive.     

Effects of early adult experience on host selection in insects: Some experimental and theoretical results

A field experiment with Drosophila melanogasterrevealed that when flies encounter a particular food type soon after emergence, the probability of their subsequently being attracted to such a resource is increased. In this experiment, the length of time flies experienced their postemergence environments was under the control of the flies themselves. The experiment thus realistically mimicked one form of experiential effect that may be important in nature. A theoretical model is developed which shows that enhanced adult preferences for the types of resources fed on as larvae can substantially increase the degree of host-based genetic subdivision within a polyphagous population.     

NMDA受体在海马CA_3区习得性LTP保持中的作用

在大鼠明暗分辨学习的建立和巩固过程中,通过与记录电极一起慢性埋植于海马CA_3区的注药管微量注射NMDA受体的特异性拮抗剂2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid(APV),观察对海马CA_3区突触效应及与之相关的习得性行为的影响。结果如下:(1)在动物经训练PS峰幅值刚增大至最高水平后,即在习得性LTP刚好形成后,每实验单元先于CA_3区注射AFV 1μl(2mmol/L),然后在药物有效作用时间内再进行训练,则PS峰值不能随训练而保持在最高水平,相反经8个实验单元,PS峰值降至实验前水平;相应地动物的正确反应率不能随训练而巩固,反而下降至10％以下。(2)在动物习得性LTP已形成并经一单元训练PS保持在最高水平后,于每实验单元训练前注射APV 1μl(2mmol/L),PS峰值同样不会随训练而保持在最高水平,经14个实验单元注药和训练,PS峰值逐渐降至实验前水平,相应地动物行为的正确反应率也降至10％以下,习得性行为消退,不过其消退速度比前一情况的动物为慢,说明习得性LTP发展情况不同,APV的作用效率有差别。结果表明:NMDA受体在习得性LTP的巩固中起着重要作用。     

The influence of prior ovipositional experience on host selection in four species of aphidiid wasps (Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae)

We evaluated the influence of prior ovipositional experience on host selection in four solitary parasitoids, Aphidius erviHaliday, A. pisivorusSmith, A. smithiSharma & Subba Rao, and Praon pequodorumViereck (Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae). When provided simultaneously with equal numbers of two species of aphids, Acyrthosiphon pisum(Harris) and Macrosiphum creeliiDavis (Homoptera: Aphididae), all four parasitoids showed a moderate to strong preference for A. pisum.This preference did not increase after sampling, except in P. pequodorum.Learning did not alter host selection behavior in A. erviand P. pequodorum.However, females of A. pisivorusconditioned on A. pisumselected fewer M. creeliithan unconditioned wasps and wasps conditioned on M. creelii.It is suggested that prior ovipositional experience influences a parasitoid's expectations of the kinds of hosts available, but it does not alter the (innate) rank order of hosts.     

Rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) complex learning skills reassessed

Results from three experiments on basic learning and transfer in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) are reported in which fully automated testing paradigms, afforded by the Language Research Center's Computerized Test System (LRC-CTS), were employed. Performance levels for discrimination learning set, transfer index, and mediational-learning testing were uniformly higher than was predicted from the literature, in contrast to previous reports of compromised learning under similar conditions (automated apparatus, planimetric stimuli, spatial discontiguity between stimuli and response loci). Analyses reveal relatively advanced learning set performance, transfer-index ratios, and positive transfer of learning even at stringent criterion levels. Moreover, the data suggest that rhesus monkeys tested in these experiments exhibit mediational instead of associative learning strategies, as do great apes and in contrast to previous reports of rhesus learning. We argue that the LRC-CTS enhances learning by nonhuman primate subjects, obviating those factors, reported in the literature from experiments in which manual or other automated systems were employed, that compromise learning.     

一种复合神经元网络结构的并行动力学及快速学习算法

提出两种功能互相不同的神经细胞组成的复合神经元网络(CNN)模型;导出一种特殊结构的CNN的并行动力学;而且证明了它的稳定性。在这些结果基础上,得到快速的假逆矩阵学习算法。计算机仿真试验证实学习算法与动力学稳定性的正确性,并表现出良好的容错性能与存储容量。     

Food selection by locusts: The rôle of learning in rejection behaviour

The food selection behaviour of male fifth instar nymphs of Locusta migratoria was monitored on the host plant wheat and on the non-host plants Senecio vulgaris, S. jacobaea and Brassica oleracea. The non-hosts were rejected, but the mode of rejection altered with time in a way which suggested associative learning. This hypothesis was tested and the results discussed in relation to classical theories of learning.

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La sélection des aliments chez les criquets: Le rôle de l'apprentissage dans le comportement de rejet

Résumé Des larves mâles de cinquième stade de Locusta migratoria ont été placées dans des cages avec des végétaux qui pouvaient être changées sans troubler les insectes. Le contact avec des pieds de blé entraînait généralement une palpation suivie de morsures et alors d'alimentation continue. Les plantes non-hôtes Senecio vulgaris, S. jacobaea et Brassica oleracea étaient rejetées, d'abord après morsures suivant la palpation, mais ultérieurement par palpation seule. Nous avons vérifié l'hypothèse que la sensation obtenue par palpation était initialement inadéquate pour provoquer le rejet, ce qui était assuré par les morsures ultérieures mais qu'avec l'expérience l'insecte apprenait à lier la sensation de palpation avec celle de morsures et progressivement rejetait après palpation seule. Ainsi les 8 premiers contacts avec des aliments désagréables ont été observés, soit quant S. vulgaris était présenté continuellement, soit quand S. vulgaris était remplacé par une autre plante désagréable après 4 contacts. Une analyse mathématique des résultats révèle une tendance au rejet par palpation seule à travers les contacts successifs, et que cette tendance est interrompue et se restaure quand l'espace végétal est changé. Ces résultats sond discutés dans le contexte des théories de l'apprentissage et on en a conclu que le phénomène observé est le résultat d'un apprentissage associatif.