Sensing the Heat of Tomato Products Red: The New Approach to the Objective Assessment of their Color

The concept of optothermal window (OW) detection was used for the first time to assess the color of several products (juice, purée, paste) derived from thermally processed tomatoes. Unlike traditional techniques that operate either in the reflectance or transmission mode, the method proposed here actually relies on indirect measurement of absorbance in optically opaque and scattering samples. Very good correlation between the magnitude of the OW signal and the color-related parameters [colorimetric index L* and tomato paste index (TPI)] was observed.     

彩色多普勒超声结合血清CA153、MUC1、GDF3对早期乳腺癌的诊断价值研究

摘要 目的：分析彩色多普勒超声结合血清糖类抗原153（CA153）、黏蛋白1（MUC1）、人生长分化因子3（GDF3）对早期乳腺癌的诊断价值。方法：选取2019年1月至2022年10月我院收治的105例乳腺癌患者（乳腺癌组）。另选取我院同期收治的乳腺良性疾病患者94例（良性组）及体检健康女性91例（对照组）。三组均进行彩色多普勒超声和CA153、MUC1、GDF3水平检查,并以临床病理诊断为金标准,分析彩色多普勒超声、血清CA153、MUC1、GDF3单独及联合对早期乳腺癌的诊断价值。结果：对照组超声双侧乳腺的轮廓清晰,未见明显的增厚,腺体结构未见明显异常改变,回声均匀。乳腺癌组纵横比≥1、血流分级II-III级、肿瘤形态不规则、后方回声衰减、边界模糊、有微小钙化、有毛刺征所占比例高于良性组（P＜0.05）。乳腺癌组血清CA153、MUC1、GDF3水平均高于对照组和良性组（P<0.05）,且良性组高于对照组（P<0.05）。乳腺癌组血清CA153、MUC1、GDF3和彩色多普勒超声及4项联合检测阳性率明显高于良性组和对照组（P＜0.05）,良性组和对照组CA153、MUC1、GDF3及4项联合检测阳性率比较差异无统计学意义（P＞0.05）,而良性组彩色多普勒超声检出阳性率高于对照组（P＜0.05）。3项血清标志物中CA153的灵敏度、特异度、准确度最高为52.38%、89.73%、76.21%,彩色多普勒超声的灵敏度、特异度、准确度分别为84.76%、83.24%、83.79%,4项联合的灵敏度、准确度最高为94.28%,88.27%,特异度为84.86%。结论：CA153、MUC1、GDF3在乳腺癌患者中均呈现高水平状态,彩色多普勒超声联合上述3类指标检测可提高对早期乳腺癌的诊断效能。     

彩色多普勒超声联合血清CEA、CA125、TK1、TFF1对乳腺癌的诊断价值研究

摘要 目的：探究彩色多普勒超声联合血清癌胚抗原（CEA）、糖类抗原125（CA125）、胸苷激酶1（TK1）、三叶因子1（TFF1）对乳腺癌的诊断价值。方法：回顾性选取2019年1月到2022年1月间我院收治的97例乳腺癌患者为观察组,同期收治的97例乳腺良性病变患者为对照组,均行彩色多普勒超声检查及血清CEA、CA125、TK1、TFF1检测,比较两组超声特征、超声参数[搏动指数（PI）、收缩期峰值流速（PSV）、阻力指数（RI）],比较两组血清CEA、CA125、TK1、TFF1水平,通过受试者工作特征（ROC）曲线分析彩色多普勒超声联合血清CEA、CA125、TK1、TFF1诊断价值及单独诊断价值。结果：与对照组比较,观察组肿块边界不清晰、内部回声不均匀、形态不规则和钙化比例明显升高（P＜0.05）。与对照组比较,观察组患者RI、PSV、PI明显升高（P＜0.05）;其中观察组血流信号分级Ⅲ级比例明显高于对照组（P＜0.05）,观察组血流信号分级0级比例明显低于对照组（P＜0.05）。与对照组比较,观察组患者血清CEA、CA125、TK1、TFF1水平明显升高（P＜0.05）。ROC曲线发现,超声诊断乳腺癌的曲线下面积（AUC）值、灵敏度、特异度依次为0.773、76.30%、78.40%。CEA诊断乳腺癌的AUC值、灵敏度、特异度依次为0.774、78.40%、74.23%。CA125诊断乳腺癌的AUC值、灵敏度、特异度依次为0.824、77.31%、80.41%。TK1诊断乳腺癌的AUC值、灵敏度、特异度依次为0.818、78.43%、81.42%。TFF1诊断乳腺癌的AUC值、灵敏度、特异度依次为0.806、78.42%、77.31%。彩色多普勒超声联合血清CEA、CA125、TK1、TFF1诊断乳腺癌的AUC值0.929,显著优于各项指标单独使用（P＜0.05）。结论：与各项指标单一应用相比,彩色多普勒超声联合血清CEA、CA125、TK1、TFF1诊断乳腺癌的价值较高,有助于乳腺癌的早期筛查。     

Ultrastructural changes in the dermal chromatophore unit of Hyla arborea during color change

Summary The structural changes in the chromatophores of Hyla arborea related to changes in skin color were studied by electron microscopy and reflectance microspectrophotometry. During a change from a light to a darker green color, the melanosomes of the melanophores disperse and finally surround the iridophores and partly the xanthophores. The iridophores change from cup-shape to a cylindrical or conical shape with a simultaneous change in the orientation of the platelets from being parallel to the upper surface of the iridophores to being more irregular. The xanthophores change from lens-shape to plate-shape. The color change from green to grey seems always to go through a transitional black-green or dark olive green to dark grey. During this change the xanthophores migrate down between the iridophores, and in grey skins they are sometimes found beneath them. The pterinosomes gather in the periphery of the cell, while the carotenoid vesicles aggregate around the nucleus. The iridophores in grey skin are almost ball-shaped with concentric layers of platelets. A lighter grey color arises from a darker grey by an aggregation of melanosomes. The chromatophore values previously defined for Hyla cinerea are applicable in Hyla arborea, and the ultrastructural studies support the assumptions previously made to explain these values.The author wishes to thank Drs. P. Budtz, J. Dyck and L.O. Larsen for valuable discussions and J. Dyck for kindly providing the spectrophotometer granted him by the Danish National Science Foundation. The skilled technical assistance of Mrs. E. Schiøtt Hansen is gratefully acknowledged. Permission was granted by the Springer-Verlag to republish the illustrations of W.J. Schmidt (1920)     

Color perception and the limits of color constancy

Summary A summary of colorimetry is given and the limits of color constancy mechanism under changing illuminations are discussed.     

Contributions to the theory of invariance of color under the condition of varying illumination

Any visual-processing algorithm aimed at attaining color constancy will in fact attain it only for restricted spectral classes of illuminants and reflectances. These classes constitute implicit heuristics for the physical world, in an artificial-intelligence sense. In the present work, physically reasonable spectral classes are presented which insure that von Kries's law of chromatic adaptation will — in its simplest form — restore object colors in human tristimulus space to illuminant-invariant positions in the space. Algebraic functions of the adapted tristimulus values are presented which are illuminant-invariant for some departures from the spectral heuristics. These functions, a hierarchy of invariants, may be useful in developing lighting and pigment standards for partially controlled viewing environments.     

Six Opsins from the Butterfly Papilio glaucus: Molecular Phylogenetic Evidence for Paralogous Origins of Red-Sensitive Visual Pigments in Insects

It has been hypothesized that the UV-, blue-, and green-sensitive visual pigments of insects were present in the common ancestor of crustaceans and insects, whereas red-sensitive visual pigments evolved later as a result of convergent evolution. This hypothesis is examined with respect to the placement of six opsins from the swallowtail butterfly Papilio glaucus (PglRh1–6) in relationship to 46 other insect, crustacean, and chelicerate opsin sequences. All basal relationships established with maximum parsimony analysis except two are present in the distance and maximum likelihood analyses. In all analyses, the six P. glaucus opsins fall into three well-supported clades, comprised, respectively, of ultraviolet (UV), blue, and long-wavelength (LW) pigments, which appear to predate the radiation of the insects. Lepidopteran green- and red-sensitive visual pigments form a monophyletic clade, which lends support to the hypothesis from comparative physiological studies that red-sensitive visual pigments in insects have paralogous origins. Polymorphic amino acid sites (180, 197, 277, 285, 308), which are essential for generating the spectral diversity among the vertebrate red- and green-sensitive pigments are notably invariant in the Papilio red- and green-sensitive pigments. Other major tuning sites must be sought to explain the spectral diversification among these and other insect visual pigments. Received: 6 December 1999 / Accepted: 3 April 2000     

Perspective: the evolution of warning coloration is not paradoxical

Animals that are brightly colored have intrigued scientists since the time of Darwin, because it seems surprising that prey should have evolved to be clearly visible to predators. Often this self-advertisement is explained by the prey being unprofitable in some way, with the conspicuous warning coloration helping to protect the prey because it signals to potential predators that the prey is unprofitable. However, such signals only work in this way once predators have learned to associate the conspicuous color with the unprofitability of the prey. The evolution of warning coloration is still widely considered to be a paradox, because it has traditionally been assumed that the very first brightly colored individuals would be at an immediate selective disadvantage because of their greater conspicuousness to predators that are naive to the meaning of the signal. As a result, it has been difficult to understand how a novel conspicuous color morph could ever avoid extinction for long enough for predators to become educated about the signal. Thus, the traditional view that the evolution of warning coloration is difficult to explain rests entirely on assumptions about the foraging behavior of predators. However, we review recent evidence from a range of studies of predator foraging decisions, which refute these established assumptions. These studies show that: (1) Many predators are so conservative in their food preferences that even very conspicuous novel prey morphs are not necessarily at a selective disadvantage. (2) The survival and spread of novel color morphs can be simulated in field and aviary experiments using real predators (birds) foraging on successive generations of artificial prey populations. This work demonstrates that the foraging preferences of predators can regularly (though not always) result in the increase to fixation of a novel morph appearing in a population of familiar-colored prey. Such fixation events occur even if both novel and familiar prey are fully palatable and despite the novel food being much more conspicuous than the familiar prey. These studies therefore provide strong empirical evidence that conspicuous coloration can evolve readily, and repeatedly, as a result of the conservative foraging decisions of predators.     

Melanin-synthesis enzymes coregulate stage-specific larval cuticular markings in the swallowtail butterfly, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Papilio xuthus</Emphasis>

Like the adult wing, butterfly larvae are unique in their coloring. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the formation of insect larval color patterns are largely unknown. The larva of the swallowtail butterfly Papilio xuthus changes its color pattern markedly during the 4th ecdysis. We investigated its cuticular color pattern, which is thought to be composed of melanin and related pigments derived from tyrosine. We cloned three enzymes involved in the melanin-synthesis pathway in P. xuthus: tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), dopa decarboxylase (DDC), and ebony. Whole-mount in situ hybridization showed that the expression of both TH and DDC is strongly correlated with the black markings. ebony is strongly expressed only in the reddish-brown area. The expression pattern of each enzyme coincides with the cuticular color pattern of the subsequent instar. We also investigated the uptake of melanin precursors into cultured integument. Inhibition of either TH or DDC activity prevents in vitro pigmentation completely. Addition of dopamine to integuments in the presence of TH inhibitor causes overall darkening without specific markings. From these results, specific larval cuticular color patterns are regulated by stage-specific colocalization of enzymes in epidermal cells rather than by the differential uptake of melanin precursors into individual epidermal cells. Epidermal cells expressing TH and DDC, but not ebony, produce the black cuticle, and epidermal cells expressing TH, DDC, and ebony produce the reddish-brown cuticle.     

Countergradient variation and secondary sexual color: phenotypic convergence promotes genetic divergence in carotenoid use between sympatric anadromous and nonanadromous morphs of sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka)

Genetically distinct anadromous (sockeye) and nonanadromous (kokanee) morphs of the Pacific salmon, Oncorhynchus nerka, develop identical, brilliant red color at maturity during sympatric breeding in freshwater streams. The marine and lacustrine environments they occupy prior to maturity, however, appear to differ in the availability of dietary carotenoid pigments necessary to produce red coloration. We tested the hypothesis that kokanee, which occupy carotenoid-poor lakes, are more efficient at using the dietary pigments than are sockeye, which occupy the more productive North Pacific Ocean. In a 2-year controlled breeding study, flesh and skin color of mature and immature crosses fed a low-carotenoid diet were quantified with both a chromameter and by chemical extraction of carotenoid pigments. Results revealed striking countergradient variation in carotenoid use, with kokanee approximately three times more efficient at sequestering the pigments to the flesh musculature than similar age sockeye. This difference translated into virtually nonoverlapping differences between pure crosses in secondary sexual color at maturity, when the pigments are mobilized and transported to the skin. Kokanee crosses turned pinkish red over most of their body, whereas sockeye turned olive green. The olive green was similar to the breeding color of residuals in the wild, the progeny of anadromous sockeye that remain in fresh water and are believed to have given rise to kokanee on numerous independent occasions. Reciprocal hybrids were similar to each other and intermediate to the pure crosses, indicating additive genetic inheritance. Mate choice trials with sockeye males in the wild showed the ancestral morph strongly preferred red over green models. These results suggest a preference for red mates maintained in nonanadromous breeding populations drove the reevolution of the red phenotype in kokanee via more efficient use of dietary carotenoid pigments. This is a novel, yet hidden, mechanism by which sexual selection promotes the genetic differentiation of these sympatric populations.