Impact of two follow-up schemes on morbidity management and disability prevention (MMDP) programme for filarial lymphedema in Matara,Sri Lanka

Alleviating morbidity due to lymphatic filariasis (LF)—especially in elderly patients who are rather ignorant—is presently the biggest challenge for the national filariasis campaign. We introduced two follow-up schemes and compared each other to address three key programmatic issues (1) locating patients, (2) educating patients, family members on practice of lymphoedema self-care (3) well sustained daily self-care. Hundred and seven lymphoedema patients were introduced to the new Community Home Based Care (CHBC) programme as a part of MMDP programme at their homes. Twenty seven of 107 patients were selected by purposive sampling and followed-up under two schemes, 14 in Daily follow-up (DFU) scheme and 13 in Monthly follow-up (MFU) scheme. Impact was assessed using a KAP score, number of entry lesions (EL) and number of ADL episodes, limb volume, its appearance, changes in the quality of life and gained benefits. Visiting patients in their homes to introduce lymphoedema care programme was a success. KAP scores of the more important activities on lymphoedema care were significantly higher in DFU scheme. Number of patients (51.9%; 14/27) who had EL/s at baseline reduced significantly to 18.5% (5/27) at one year follow-up. The mean numbers of ADL episodes/year reduced significantly in both schemes. Six photographs of 27 showed obvious improvement in lymphoedema and its grade. Mean volume of lymphoedema reduced significantly in both schemes at one year no significant difference between schemes. Benefit score at one year revealed that the patients in DFU scheme received significantly higher amount of benefits compared to MFU scheme. In conclusion daily instruction has significantly motivated the patient and his/her family bringing a new hope.     

Influence of functional unit on the life cycle assessment of traction batteries

Goal, Scope and Background This paper describes the influence of the choice of the functional unit on the results of an environmental assessment of different battery technologies for electric and hybrid vehicles. Battery, hybrid and fuel cell electric vehicles are considered as being environmentally friendly. However, the batteries they use are sometimes said to be environmentally unfriendly. At the current state of technology different battery types can be envisaged: lead-acid, nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal hydride, lithium-ion and sodium-nickel chloride. The environmental impacts described in this paper are based on a life cycle assessment (LCA) approach. One of the first critical stages of LCA is the definition of an appropriate and specific functional unit for electric and hybrid vehicle application. Most of the known LCA studies concerning batteries were performed while choosing different functional units, although this choice can influence the final results. An adequate functional unit, allowing to compare battery technologies in their real life vehicle application should be chosen. The results of the LCA are important as they will be used as a decision support for the end-of-life vehicles directive 2000/53/EC (Official Journal of the European Communities L269/24 2000). As a consequence, a thorough analysis is required to define an appropriate functional unit for the assessment of batteries for electric vehicles. This paper discusses this issue and will mainly focus on traction batteries for electric vehicles. Main Features An overview of the different parameters to be considered in the definition of a functional unit to compare battery technologies for battery electric vehicle application is described and discussed. An LCA study is performed for the most relevant potential functional units. SimaPro 6 is used as a software tool and Eco-indicator 99 as an impact assessment method. The influence of the different selected functional units on the results (Eco-indicator Points) is discussed. The environmental impact of the different electric vehicle battery technologies is described. A sensitivity analysis illustrates the robustness of the obtained results. Results and Discussion Five main parameters are considered in each investigated functional unit: an equal depth of discharge is assumed, a relative number of batteries required during the life of the vehicle is calculated, the energy losses in the battery and the additional vehicle consumption due to the battery mass is included and the same lifetime distance target is taken into account. On the basis of the energy content, battery mass, number of cycles and vehicle autonomy three suitable functional units are defined: ‘battery packs with an identical mass’, ‘battery packs with an identical energy content’ and ‘battery packs with an identical one-charge range’. The results show that the differences in the results between these three functional units are small and imply less variation on the results than the other uncertainties inherent to LCA studies. On the other hand, the results obtained using other, less adequate, functional units can be quite different. Conclusions When performing an LCA study, it’s important to choose an appropriate functional unit. Most of the time, this choice is unambiguous. However, sometimes this choice is more complicated when different correlated parameters have to be considered, as it is the case for traction batteries. When using a realistic functional unit, the result is not influenced significantly by the choice of one out of the three suitable functional units. Additionally, the life cycle assessment allowed concluding that three electric vehicle battery technologies have a comparable environmental impact: lead-acid, nickel-cadmium and nickel-metal hydride. Lithium-ion and sodium-nickel chloride have lower environmental impacts than the three previously cited technologies when used in a typical battery electric vehicle application. Recommendations and Perspectives The article describes the need to consider all relevant parameters for the choice of a functional unit for an electric vehicle battery, as this choice can influence the conclusions. A more standardised method to define the functional unit could avoid these differences and could make it possible to compare the results of different traction battery LCA studies more easily.     

Reflections on arthropod evolution

Recent claims that arthropods are monophyletic because all have jaws composed of a five-segmented coxa, that the groundplan of arthropod legs has no less than 11 segments, that crustaceans, chelicerates and insects share a 'polyramous arthropod leg', and that the labrum is formed from a pair of legs, are rejected on factual grounds. It is suggested that the earliest arthropod appendages were unsegmented. Putative homologies among mandibulate arthropods are considered. Striking as some of these are, a good case can be made for their convergent evolution, and the concept of the Mandibulata is rejected. Suggested separate ancestries of crustaceans and tracheates are compared. A realistic explanation of radiation from a common arthropod ancestor remains illusory. A polyphyletic concept of arthropod evolution from soft-bodied, segmented, haemocoele-possessing, non-annelid worms is elaborated. The degree of convergence demanded is amply matched by proven examples of the phenomenon. If the earliest arthropods lacked compound eyes, and these were acquired several times, as they have been at least twice in non-arthropods, several otherwise intractable problems are resolved. Sequence comparisons provide a powerful tool for determining relationships but seem powerless to establish whether arthropods are monophyletic, or polyphyletic in the manner envisaged here.     

An environmental evaluation of mechanical systems using environmentally acceptable refrigerants

New hydrofluorocarbon refrigerant gases in domestic refrigerators require the use of the newly developed synthetic lubricants. Research carried out so far indicates that the hermetic compressor used in these refrigerating systems is one component that is likely to be directly influenced by this change in working fluid. This may affect system performance as well as system durability such that a potential environmental improvement may result in a shift in environmental pollution. An environmental evaluation, using a life cycle assessment (LCA) computational tool, is carried out to study the influence of the individual components on the overall product environmental contribution. The manufacture and the recovery of the refrigerants addressed in this study were also included in this evaluation. In this LCA study, the hermetic compressor was found to contribute significantly to a number of impact categories as compared to other product components of concern. This becomes of primal environmental significance in view of the possibility that tribological characteristics, due to the presence of the new refrigerant/lubricant combinations, may influence its performance.     

Midpoints versus endpoints: The sacrifices and benefits

On May 25–26, 2000 in Brighton (England), the third in a series of international workshops was held under the umbrella of UNEP addressing issues in Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA). The workshop provided a forum for experts to discuss midpoint vs. endpoint modeling. Midpoints are considered to be links in the cause-effect chain (environmental mechanism) of an impact category, prior to the endpoints, at which characterization factors or indicators can be derived to reflect the relative importance of emissions or extractions. Common examples of midpoint characterization factors include ozone depletion potentials, global warming potentials, and photochemical ozone (smog) creation potentials. Recently, however, some methodologies have adopted characterization factors at an endpoint level in the cause-effect chain for all categories of impact (e.g., human health impacts in terms of disability adjusted life years for carcinogenicity, climate change, ozone depletion, photochemical ozone creation; or impacts in terms of changes in biodiversity, etc.). The topics addressed at this workshop included the implications of midpoint versus endpoint indicators with respect to uncertainty (parameter, model and scenario), transparency and the ability to subsequently resolve trade-offs across impact categories using weighting techniques. The workshop closed with a consensus that both midpoint and endpoint methodologies provide useful information to the decision maker, prompting the call for tools that include both in a consistent framework.     

Habitat requirements of the Himalayan red panda (Ailurus fulgens) and threat analysis in Jigme Dorji National Park,Bhutan

Understanding the influence of anthropogenic disturbances on species’ habitat use and distribution is critical to conservation managers in planning effective conservation strategies and mitigating the impact of development. Few studies have focused on the Himalayan red panda (Ailurus fulgens) in Bhutan. This study aimed to assess the habitat requirements and threats to this endangered species in the Khamaed subdistrict of the Jigme Dorji National Park, Bhutan. We employed a transect walk and plot‐sampling survey design across two seasons, that is, winter and spring. In total, we surveyed 84 × 50 m radius circular plots along 51 km of existing trails within a 25.4 km² study area. At 500 m intervals, we established plots at random distances and direction from the trail. We recorded direct sightings (n = 2) and indirect signs (n = 14), such as droppings and footprints as evidence of red panda presence within an altitudinal range of 2,414–3,618 m. We also noted 21 tree and 12 understory species within plots with red panda evidence; the dominant tree species was the Himalayan hemlock (Tsuga dumosa) and the Asian barberry (Berberis asiatica) as an understory species. Red panda presence showed a significant positive association with distance to water sources and fir forests. Plant disturbance and infrastructure, such as power transmission lines, were identified as prominent anthropogenic threats in the study area. Based on our findings, we recommend the development and implementation of local forest management plans, livestock intensification programs, and strict application of environmental impact assessment regulations to promote the conservation of the red panda in the region.     

Application typologies for life cycle assessment

Different lists of application areas for life cycle assessment are reviewed together with some suggestions for a typology of these application areas. It is concluded that the scope of a life cycle assessment is determined by the area of validity of the decision with respect to time, space, and interest groups affected. On this basis, six application areas are distinguished. It is further concluded that the application area has limited influence on the inventory analysis and impact assessment phases, although these may be influenced significantly by the decision-maker and the complexity of the trade-offs between the involved environmental impacts. The reporting format for a life cycle assessment depends on the socio-economic importance of the decision, the intended audience, and the time available for decision making.     

The EVect of Release Size on the Probability of Establishment of Biological Control Agents: Gorse Thrips ( Sericothrips staphylinus ) Released Against Gorse ( Ulex europaeus ) in New Zealand

Many biocontrol agents released against alien weeds and pests fail to establish in the field. Here, we ask whether better release strategies could improve the likelihood of successful establishment. A manipulative field experiment was used to investigate the relationship between the probability of establishment and the number of individuals released for a weed biocontrol agent. In this experiment, replicated releases of 10, 30, 90, 270 and 810 gorse thrips, Sericothrips staphylinus Haliday, were made on to isolated gorse bushes in New Zealand. The sampling eY ciency was determined using a further experiment in which known numbers of thrips were released on to bushes. The data obtained showed that in approximately nine out of 10 releases of 10 thrips, at least one thrips would be found. The thrips in the size of release experiment were sampled 1 year after their release. A higher proportion of the small releases became extinct during this time period: thrips were recovered from 100% of the releases of 270 and 810 thrips, but only from 33% of releases of 10, 30 and 90 thrips. Using gorse thrips as an example, a protocol was developed to determine the optimal release size for biocontrol agents. It is suggested that for a fixed number of insects available for release, smaller releases may increase the overall establishment rate. W hile a single large release can easily become extinct by chance, it is extremely unlikely that a large number of small releases will do so over the same time period. The optimal release size (i.e. that which maximizes the average number of successful establishments) for gorse thrips in New Zealand might be fewer than 100 thrips/ release site. This contrasts with the current strategy in New Zealand of 1000 thrips/release and the suggestion in the biocontrol literature that large releases optimize establishment. Over 1 year of observation the thrips had no eVect on gorse growth rate. The EVect of Release Size on the Probability of Establishment of Biological Control Agents: Gorse Thrips ( Sericothrips staphylinus ) Released Against Gorse ( Ulex europaeus ) in New Zealand     

Insect Biocontrol with Non-endemic Entomopathogenic Nematodes (Steinernema and Heterorhabditis spp.): Conclusions and Recommendations of a Combined OECD and COST Workshop on Scientific and Regulatory Policy Issues

Fifteen invited experts from 10 Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and European countries participating in the European Commission's Cooperation in the Field of Science and Technical Research (COST) Action 819, along with 12 other participants, met to review and debate the potential problems associated with the introduction and commercial use of non-indigenous nematodes for insect biological control. The consensus view of the participants was that entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) possess specific biological and ecological features, which make their use in biological control exceptionally safe. All the scientific evidence available supports the conclusion that EPNs are safe to the environment, as well as to production and application personnel, the general public and the consumers of agricultural products treated with them. Only a few potential, but very remote, risks could be identified. Therefore, it was recommended that EPNs should not be subject to any kind of registration. The introduction of non-indigenous nematode species, however, should be regulated. Species should be accurately identified, and details of the origin, known distribution, probable host range and safety to the user must be provided. In addition, an expert opinion, based on available information, of the possible impact on non-target organisms must be available.     

Integrating life cycle cost analysis and LCA

The private sector decision making situations which LCA addresses mustalso eventually take theeconomic consequences of alternative products or product designs into account. However, neither the internal nor external economic aspects of the decisions are within the scope of developed LCA methodology, nor are they properly addressed by existing LCA tools. This traditional separation of life cycle environmental assessment from economic analysis has limited the influence and relevance of LCA for decision-making, and left uncharacterized the important relationships and trade-offs between the economic and life cycle environmental performance of alternative product design decision scenarios. Still standard methods of LCA can and have been tightly, logically, and practically integrated with standard methods for cost accounting, life cycle cost analysis, and scenario-based economic risk modeling. The result is an ability to take both economic and environmental performance — and their tradeoff relationships — into account in product/process design decision making.