Absence of PmrAB-mediated phosphoethanolamine modifications of Citrobacter rodentium lipopolysaccharide affects outer membrane integrity

The PmrAB two-component system of enterobacteria regulates a number of genes whose protein products modify lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The LPS is modified during transport to the bacterial outer membrane (OM). A subset of PmrAB-mediated LPS modifications consists of the addition of phosphoethanolamine (pEtN) to lipid A by PmrC and to the core by CptA. In Salmonella enterica, pEtN modifications have been associated with resistance to polymyxin B and to excess iron. To investigate putative functions of pEtN modifications in Citrobacter rodentium, ΔpmrAB, ΔpmrC, ΔcptA, and ΔpmrC ΔcptA deletion mutants were constructed. Compared to the wild type, most mutant strains were found to be more susceptible to antibiotics that must diffuse across the LPS layer of the OM. All mutant strains also showed increased influx rates of ethidium dye across their OM, suggesting that PmrAB-regulated pEtN modifications affect OM permeability. This was confirmed by increased partitioning of the fluorescent dye 1-N-phenylnaphthylamine (NPN) into the OM phospholipid layer of the mutant strains. In addition, substantial release of periplasmic β-lactamase was observed for the ΔpmrAB and ΔpmrC ΔcptA strains, indicating a loss of OM integrity. This study attributes a new role for PmrAB-mediated pEtN LPS modifications in the maintenance of C. rodentium OM integrity.     

Carbon dioxide reduction by early metal compounds: A propensity for oxygen atom transfer

While treatment of [(silox)₂TaH₂]₂ (1, silox = ^tBu₃SiO) with CO₂ provided evidence for myriad hydride transfer products, related hydrides (silox)₃TaH₂ (15-Ta), (silox)₃NbH (17), and [(silox)₂WH]₂ (20) afforded products of oxygen atom transfer (OAT) and CO reduction, such as (silox)₃Ta(?²-CH₂O) (16-Ta from 15-Ta) and [(silox)₂W]₂(μ-H)(μ-O)(μ-CH) (14, from 20). Low valent early metal derivatives (silox)₃Ta (7) and (silox)₃NbPMe₃ (7-NbPMe₃) generated (silox)₃TaO (8-Ta) and (silox)₃NbO (8-Nb), respectively, under high CO₂ concentrations. Under low CO₂ conditions, the products were the oxos and those derived from CO: (silox)₃TaCCO (9-Ta) and (silox)₃TaCCTa(silox)₃ (10-Ta); (silox)₃NbCCO (9-Nb) and (silox)₃NbCCNb(silox)₃ (10-Nb). On all occasions with CO present, preparations of 10-Nb yielded varying amounts of a similarly insoluble material tentatively characterized as (silox)₃NbCONb(silox)₃ (18-Nb). Metric parameters of a crystal structure determination purported to be of 10-Nb resemble those of 18-Nb according to calculations, but the bulk sample suggests cocrystallization of 9-Nb and 18-Nb. Calculations of 10-Ta, 10-Nb, and 18-Nb, including thermodynamics of dicarbide binding and CO scission help to understand the system. Since OAT is the major path for CO₂ activation, it is suggested that CO₂ reduction is best conducted by the water-gas shift reaction to produce CO, followed by Fischer-Tropsch processes.     

Early induction of autophagy in human fibroblasts after infection with human cytomegalovirus or herpes simplex virus 1

The infection of human fetal foreskin fibroblasts (HFFF2) with human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) resulted in the induction of autophagy. This was demonstrated by the increased lipidation of microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3), a hallmark of autophagy, and by the visualization of characteristic vesicles within infected cells. The response was detected first at 2 h postinfection and persisted for at least 3 days. De novo protein synthesis was not required for the effect, since HCMV that was irradiated with UV light also elicited the response, and furthermore the continuous presence of cycloheximide did not prevent induction. Infection with herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) under conditions that inhibited viral gene expression provoked autophagy, whereas UV-irradiated respiratory syncytial virus did not. The induction of autophagy occurred when cells were infected with HCMV or HSV-1 that was gradient purified, but HCMV dense bodies and HSV-1 light particles, each of which lack nucleocapsids and genomes, were inactive. The depletion of regulatory proteins Atg5 and Atg7, which are required for autophagy, reduced LC3 modification in response to infection but did not result in any detectable difference in viral or cellular gene expression at early times after infection. The electroporation of DNA into HFFF2 cultures induced the lipidation of LC3 but double-stranded RNA did not, even though both agents stimulated an innate immune response. The results show a novel, early cellular response to the presence of the incoming virion and additionally demonstrate that autophagy can be induced by the presence of foreign DNA within cells.     

Adipocyte lineage cells contribute to the skin stem cell niche to drive hair cycling

In mammalian skin, multiple types of resident cells are required to create a functional tissue and support tissue homeostasis and regeneration. The cells that compose the epithelial stem cell niche for skin homeostasis and regeneration are not well defined. Here, we identify adipose precursor cells within the skin and demonstrate that their dynamic regeneration parallels the activation of skin stem cells. Functional analysis of adipocyte lineage cells in mice with defects in adipogenesis and in transplantation experiments revealed that intradermal adipocyte lineage cells are necessary and sufficient to drive follicular stem cell activation. Furthermore, we implicate PDGF expression by immature adipocyte cells in the regulation of follicular stem cell activity. These data highlight adipogenic cells as skin niche cells that positively regulate skin stem cell activity, and suggest that adipocyte lineage cells may alter epithelial stem cell function clinically.     

Loss of skywalker reveals synaptic endosomes as sorting stations for synaptic vesicle proteins

Exchange of proteins at sorting endosomes is not only critical to numerous signaling pathways but also to receptor-mediated signaling and to pathogen entry into cells; however, how this process is regulated in synaptic vesicle cycling remains unexplored. In this work, we present evidence that loss of function of a single neuronally expressed GTPase activating protein (GAP), Skywalker (Sky) facilitates endosomal trafficking of synaptic vesicles at Drosophila neuromuscular junction boutons, chiefly by controlling Rab35 GTPase activity. Analyses of genetic interactions with the ESCRT machinery as well as chimeric ubiquitinated synaptic vesicle proteins indicate that endosomal trafficking facilitates the replacement of dysfunctional synaptic vesicle components. Consequently, sky mutants harbor a larger readily releasable pool of synaptic vesicles and show a dramatic increase in basal neurotransmitter release. Thus, the trafficking of vesicles via endosomes uncovered using sky mutants provides an elegant mechanism by which neurons may regulate synaptic vesicle rejuvenation and neurotransmitter release.     

Cell surface display of poliovirus receptor on Escherichia coli, a novel method for concentrating viral particles in water

The lack of efficient methods for concentrating viruses in water samples leads to underreporting of viral contamination in source water. A novel strategy for viral concentration was developed using the expression of target virus receptors on bacterial cells. Poliovirus type 1, the most studied enterovirus, was used as a surrogate for enteric viruses. The human poliovirus receptor (hPVR) gene was expressed on the surface of Escherichia coli cells by using the ice nucleation protein (INP) gene. The hPVR gene was ligated to the 3' end of the INP gene after the removal of the stop codon. The resulting open reading frame (ORF) was used for the projection of hPVR onto the outer membrane of E. coli. Gene expression was tested by SDS-PAGE, Western blot, and dot blot analyses, and virion capture ability was confirmed by transmission electron microscopy. The application of engineered E. coli cells for capturing viruses in 1-liter samples of source and drinking water resulted in 75 to 99% procedural recovery efficiency. Cell surface display of viral receptors on bacterial cells opens a new prospect for an efficient and inexpensive alternative tool for capturing and concentrating waterborne viruses in water samples.     

Genetic analysis of resistance to septoria tritici blotch in the French winter wheat cultivars Balance and Apache

The ascomycete Mycosphaerella graminicola is the causal agent of septoria tritici blotch (STB), one of the most destructive foliar diseases of bread and durum wheat globally, particularly in temperate humid areas. A screening of the French bread wheat cultivars Apache and Balance with 30 M. graminicola isolates revealed a pattern of resistant responses that suggested the presence of new genes for STB resistance. Quantitative trait loci (QTL) analysis of a doubled haploid (DH) population with five M. graminicola isolates in the seedling stage identified four QTLs on chromosomes 3AS, 1BS, 6DS and 7DS, and occasionally on 7DL. The QTL on chromosome 6DS flanked by SSR markers Xgpw5176 and Xgpw3087 is a novel QTL that now can be designated as Stb18. The QTLs on chromosomes 3AS and 1BS most likely represent Stb6 and Stb11, respectively, and the QTLs on chromosome 7DS are most probably identical with Stb4 and Stb5. However, the QTL identified on chromosome 7DL is expected to be a new Stb gene that still needs further characterization. Multiple isolates were used and show that not all isolates identify all QTLs, which clearly demonstrates the specificity in the M. graminicola–wheat pathosystem. QTL analyses were performed with various disease parameters. The development of asexual fructifications (pycnidia) in the characteristic necrotic blotches of STB, designated as parameter P, identified the maximum number of QTLs. All other parameters identified fewer but not different QTLs. The segregation of multiple QTLs in the Apache/Balance DH population enabled the identification of DH lines with single QTLs and multiple QTL combinations. Analyses of the marker data of these DH lines clearly demonstrated the positive effect of pyramiding QTLs to broaden resistance spectra as well as epistatic and additive interactions between these QTLs. Phenotyping of the Apache/Balance DH population in the field confirmed the presence of the QTLs that were identified in the seedling stage, but Stb18 was inconsistently expressed and might be particularly effective in young plants. In contrast, an additional QTL for STB resistance was identified on chromosome 2DS that is exclusively and consistently expressed in mature plants over locations and time, but it was also strongly related with earliness, tallness as well as resistance to Fusarium head blight. Although to date no Stb gene has been reported on chromosome 2D, the data provide evidence that this QTL is only indirectly related to STB resistance. This study shows that detailed genetic analysis of contemporary commercial bread wheat cultivars can unveil novel Stb genes that can be readily applied in marker-assisted breeding programs.     

A large-scale forest fragmentation experiment: the Stability of Altered Forest Ecosystems Project

Opportunities to conduct large-scale field experiments are rare, but provide a unique opportunity to reveal the complex processes that operate within natural ecosystems. Here, we review the design of existing, large-scale forest fragmentation experiments. Based on this review, we develop a design for the Stability of Altered Forest Ecosystems (SAFE) Project, a new forest fragmentation experiment to be located in the lowland tropical forests of Borneo (Sabah, Malaysia). The SAFE Project represents an advance on existing experiments in that it: (i) allows discrimination of the effects of landscape-level forest cover from patch-level processes; (ii) is designed to facilitate the unification of a wide range of data types on ecological patterns and processes that operate over a wide range of spatial scales; (iii) has greater replication than existing experiments; (iv) incorporates an experimental manipulation of riparian corridors; and (v) embeds the experimentally fragmented landscape within a wider gradient of land-use intensity than do existing projects. The SAFE Project represents an opportunity for ecologists across disciplines to participate in a large initiative designed to generate a broad understanding of the ecological impacts of tropical forest modification.