Global introductions of salmon and trout in the genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Oncorhynchus</Emphasis>: 1870–2007

The purpose of this review is to provide a global perspective on Oncorhynchus salmonine introductions and put-and-take fisheries based on modern stocking programs, with special emphasis on freshwater ecosystems. We survey the global introductions of nine selected salmonines of the genus Oncorhynchus: golden trout, cutthroat trout, pink salmon, chum salmon, coho salmon, masu/cherry salmon, rainbow trout/steelhead, sockeye salmon/kokanee, and chinook salmon. The information is organized on a geographical basis by continent, and then by species and chronology. Two different objectives and associated definitions of ‘success’ for introductions are distinguished: (a) seed introduction: release of individuals with the purpose of creating a wild-reproducing, self-sustaining population; and (b) put-and-take introduction: release of individuals with the purpose of maintaining some level of wild population abundance, regardless of wild reproduction. We identify four major phenomena regarding global salmonine introductions: (1) general inadequacy of documentation regarding introductions; (2) a fundamental disconnect between management actions and ecological consequences of introductions; (3) the importance of global climate change on success of previous and future introductions; and (4) the significance of aquaculture as a key uncertainty in accidental introductions. We conclude this review with a recognition of the need to terminate ongoing stocking programs for introduced salmonines worldwide.     

Transport of amino acids and ammonium in mycelium of Agaricus bisporus.

Mycelium of Agaricus bisporus took up methylamine (MA), glutamate, glutamine and arginine by high-affinity transport systems following Michaelis-Menten kinetics. The activities of these systems were influenced by the nitrogen source used for mycelial growth. Moreover, MA, glutamate and glutamine uptakes were derepressed by nitrogen starvation, whereas arginine uptake was repressed. The two ammonium-specific transport systems with different affinities and capacities were inhibited by NH(+)(4), with a K(i) of 3.7 microM for the high-velocity system. The K(m) values for glutamate, glutamine and arginine transport were 124, 151 and 32 microM, respectively. Inhibition of arginine uptake by lysine and histidine showed that they are competitive inhibitors. MA, glutamate and glutamine uptake was inversely proportional to the intracellular NH(+)(4) concentration. Moreover, increase of the intracellular NH(+)(4) level caused by PPT (DL-phosphinotricin) resulted in an immediate cessation of MA, glutamine and glutamate uptake. It seems that the intracellular NH(+)(4) concentration regulates its own influx by feedback-inhibition of the uptake system and probably also its efflux which becomes apparent when mycelium is grown on protein. Addition of extracellular NH(+)(4) did not inhibit glutamine uptake, suggesting that NH(+)(4) and glutamine are equally preferred nitrogen sources. The physiological importance of these uptake systems for the utilization of nitrogen compounds by A. bisporus is discussed.     

Massive deformation of the scrotal wall by idiopathic calcinosis of the scrotum

Idiopathic calcinosis of the scrotum is a rare disease that may cause massive deformation of the scrotal wall. The first patient we present was also known to have neurofibromatosis. In the second patient we describe, nodules of idiopathic calcinosis of the scrotum were seen with walls that evidenced no epithelial lining, as well as calcification in epithelial cysts. At present, the only possible treatment is excision, and we excised the afflicted skin without problems in primary wound closure.     

Assignment of the human homologue of Pim-1, a mouse gene implicated in leukemogenesis,to the pter-q12 region of chromosome 6

Summary Viral leukemogenesis in mice is frequently initiated by proviral activation of a highly conserved cellular gene called Pim-1. Here we report the chromosomal localization of the human homologue by Southern blot analyses of DNAs obtained from human-rodent somatic cell hybrids. The single copy human homologue was assigned to the 6pter-q12 segment.     

Cystine Deprivation Induces Oligodendroglial Death: Rescue by Free Radical Scavengers and by a Diffusible Glial Factor

Abstract: In this study we examined the effect on oligodendroglial survival of exogenous cystine deprivation. Oligodendroglia isolated from mixed glial primary cultures derived from brains of 1-day-old rats, and then grown for 3 days, were markedly dependent on extracellular cystine for survival. The EC₅₀ values for cystine for a 24-h exposure ranged from 2 to 65 µ M . After 6 h of cystine deprivation, the cellular glutathione level decreased to 21 ± 13% of the control. Free radical scavengers (α-tocopherol, ascorbate, idebenone, and N-tert -butyl-α-phenylnitrone) were protective against cystine deprivation but had no effect on the glutathione level. An iron chelator, desferrioxamine mesylate, also was protective. These findings suggest that intracellular hydroxyl radicals are important for this toxicity. In contrast to the observations in 3-day-old cultures, the dependence on exogenous cystine for cell viability was not observed consistently in oligodendroglia cultured for 6 days before the onset of cystine deprivation. Several observations suggested that this loss of cystine dependence was due to a diffusible factor. Sensitivity to the toxicity of cystine deprivation in day 6 cultures increased as the volume of medium was increased from 0.3 to 2 ml. Furthermore, preincubation of cystine-depleted medium with astrocyte cultures eliminated the toxicity of the cystine deprivation. HPLC assay of the conditioned cystine-depleted medium showed no significant change in cystine or cysteine concentration. We conclude that oligodendroglia are highly susceptible to cystine deprivation in day 3 cultures and that this susceptibility is due to the accumulation of intracellular free radicals in the setting of glutathione depletion. The resistance of day 6 oligodendroglial cultures is caused at least in part by a diffusible factor.     

Functional role of phenylacetic acid from metapleural gland secretions in controlling fungal pathogens in evolutionarily derived leaf-cutting ants

Fungus-farming ant colonies vary four to five orders of magnitude in size. They employ compounds from actinomycete bacteria and exocrine glands as antimicrobial agents. Atta colonies have millions of ants and are particularly relevant for understanding hygienic strategies as they have abandoned their ancestors'' prime dependence on antibiotic-based biological control in favour of using metapleural gland (MG) chemical secretions. Atta MGs are unique in synthesizing large quantities of phenylacetic acid (PAA), a known but little investigated antimicrobial agent. We show that particularly the smallest workers greatly reduce germination rates of Escovopsis and Metarhizium spores after actively applying PAA to experimental infection targets in garden fragments and transferring the spores to the ants'' infrabuccal cavities. In vitro assays further indicated that Escovopsis strains isolated from evolutionarily derived leaf-cutting ants are less sensitive to PAA than strains from phylogenetically more basal fungus-farming ants, consistent with the dynamics of an evolutionary arms race between virulence and control for Escovopsis, but not Metarhizium. Atta ants form larger colonies with more extreme caste differentiation relative to other attines, in societies characterized by an almost complete absence of reproductive conflicts. We hypothesize that these changes are associated with unique evolutionary innovations in chemical pest management that appear robust against selection pressure for resistance by specialized mycopathogens.     

DIATOM SILICA BIOMINERALIZATION: AT NANOSCALE LEVEL A CHEMICALLY UNIFORM PROCESS

Using a high-brilliance synchrotron X-ray source, combined small- and wide-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS and WAXS) was applied to study nanoscale characteristics, in particular pore size in the range of 3 to 65 nm, of a variety of unialgal cultures of centric and pennate diatoms, and of mixed diatom populations sampled in the field. Results of scattering analysis were compared with details of pore size, structure and orientation visible at the electron microscopic level. WAXS patterns did not reveal any crystalline phase or features of microcrystallinity (resolution 0.07 to 0.51 nm), which implies a totally amorphous character of the SiO₂ matrix of the frustule material. SAXS data (resolution 3 to 65 nm) provided information on geometry, size, and distribution of pores in the silica. Overall, two pore regions were recognized that were common to the silica of all samples: the smallest (d less than 10 nm) regularly spaced and shaped spherically, the larger (up to 65 nm) being cylinders or slits. Apparently, at a nanoscale level diatomaceous silica is quite homologous among species, in agreement with the chemical principles of silica polymerization under the conditions of pH and precursor concentrations inside the silicon deposition vesicle. The final frustule "macro"-morphology is of course species-specific, being determined genetically. Synthetically-derived MCM-type silicas have a similarly organized pore distribution in an amorphous silica matrix as we found in all diatom species studied. We therefore suggest that organic molecules of a kind used as structure-directing agents to produce these artificial silicas play a role in the nucleation of the silica polymerization reaction and the shaping of pore morphology inside the silicon deposition vesicle of diatoms. Structure-directing molecules now await isolation from the SDV, followed by identification and characterisation by molecular techniques.