Which sharks attract research? Analyses of the distribution of research effort in sharks reveal significant non-random knowledge biases

Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries - Research effort is unevenly distributed across species, which can cause important biases in our understanding of evolutionary and ecological processes and...     

Conscious Brain-to-Brain Communication in Humans Using Non-Invasive Technologies

Human sensory and motor systems provide the natural means for the exchange of information between individuals, and, hence, the basis for human civilization. The recent development of brain-computer interfaces (BCI) has provided an important element for the creation of brain-to-brain communication systems, and precise brain stimulation techniques are now available for the realization of non-invasive computer-brain interfaces (CBI). These technologies, BCI and CBI, can be combined to realize the vision of non-invasive, computer-mediated brain-to-brain (B2B) communication between subjects (hyperinteraction). Here we demonstrate the conscious transmission of information between human brains through the intact scalp and without intervention of motor or peripheral sensory systems. Pseudo-random binary streams encoding words were transmitted between the minds of emitter and receiver subjects separated by great distances, representing the realization of the first human brain-to-brain interface. In a series of experiments, we established internet-mediated B2B communication by combining a BCI based on voluntary motor imagery-controlled electroencephalographic (EEG) changes with a CBI inducing the conscious perception of phosphenes (light flashes) through neuronavigated, robotized transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), with special care taken to block sensory (tactile, visual or auditory) cues. Our results provide a critical proof-of-principle demonstration for the development of conscious B2B communication technologies. More fully developed, related implementations will open new research venues in cognitive, social and clinical neuroscience and the scientific study of consciousness. We envision that hyperinteraction technologies will eventually have a profound impact on the social structure of our civilization and raise important ethical issues.     

Peroxisomes and peroxisomal enzymes along the crypt-villus axis of the rat intestine

Abstract. The development of peroxisomes and expression of their enzymes were investigated in differentiating intestinal epithelial cells during their migration along the crypt-villus axis. Sequential cell populations harvested by a low-temperature method were identified by microscopy, determination of alkaline phosphatase and sucrase activities and incorporation of [³H]-thymidine into DNA. Ultrastructural cytochemistry after staining for catalase activity, revealed the presence of peroxisomes in undifferentiated stem cells located in the crypt region. Morphometry indicated that the number of these organelles increased as intestinal epithelial cells differentiate. Catalase activity was higher in the crypt cells than in the mature enterocytes harvested from villus tips. On the other hand, an increasing gradient of activity was observed from crypts to villus tips for peroxisomal oxidases, i.e. fatty acyl coA oxidase, D-amino acid oxidase and polyamine oxidase. These findings indicate that biogenesis of peroxisomes occurs during migration of intestinal epithelial cells along the crypt-villus axis and that peroxisomal oxidases contribute substantially to the biochemical maturation of enterocytes.     

Polymorphism due to variable number of repeats in the human involucrin gene.

The coding region of the involucrin gene in higher primates contains a segment consisting of numerous tandem repeats of a 10-codon sequence. The process of repeat addition began in a common ancestor of all higher primates and subsequent repeats were added vectorially. As a result, the principal site of repeat addition has moved in the 3' to 5' direction and the most recently generated repeats (the late region) are close to the 5' end of the segment of repeats. In the human, most of the late region is made up of two different blocks, each consisting of nearly identical repeats. We describe here five polymorphic forms resulting from the addition of differing numbers of repeats to each block. As the variety and nature of the polymorphic alleles are different in different human populations, we postulate that the process of repeat addition is genetically determined.     

A Survey Investigating the Infection of Fusarium langsethiae and Production of HT‐2 and T‐2 Mycotoxins in UK Oat Fields

Fusarium langsethiae is a toxigenic fungal species that has been reported in European small‐grain cereal crops such as oats, wheat and barley. Although its relative contribution to fusarium head blight (FHB) symptoms is not well understood, it is reported to contaminate these cereals with high levels of HT‐2 and T‐2 trichothecenes mycotoxins that are currently under consideration for legislation by the European Commission. Ten commercial oat fields in Shropshire and Staffordshire (two adjacent counties in the Midlands) in the UK were surveyed in the 2006/2007 growing season. Samples were taken from predetermined field locations at Zadoks growth stages 32/33, 69, 77‐85 and 90‐92 for F. langsethiae biomass and HT‐2 and T‐2 toxins quantification. The results from this study showed that oats can be heavily infected with F. langsethiae and have high concentrations of HT‐2 and T‐2 toxins with no apparent FHB symptoms. The regression of HT‐2 + T‐2 toxins on F. langsethiae DNA concentration was highly significant (P < 0.001, r² = 0.55). The results indicated that although F. langsethiae had no direct effect on crop yield, it may result in indirect economic losses where the grain can be rejected or downgraded as a result of intolerable levels of HT‐2 and T‐2 toxins, which are of human food and animal feed safety concern. The influence of cultural field practices on the infection and HT‐2 and T‐2 toxins accumulation in oats was not clear and warrants further studies to identify the sources of F. langsethiae inoculum and conditions favourable for infection and mycotoxin production.     

Combining Motion Analysis and Microfluidics – A Novel Approach for Detecting Whole-Animal Responses to Test Substances

Small, early life stages, such as zebrafish embryos are increasingly used to assess the biological effects of chemical compounds in vivo. However, behavioural screens of such organisms are challenging in terms of both data collection (culture techniques, drug delivery and imaging) and data evaluation (very large data sets), restricting the use of high throughput systems compared to in vitro assays. Here, we combine the use of a microfluidic flow-through culture system, or BioWell plate, with a novel motion analysis technique, (sparse optic flow - SOF) followed by spectral analysis (discrete Fourier transformation - DFT), as a first step towards automating data extraction and analysis for such screenings. Replicate zebrafish embryos housed in a BioWell plate within a custom-built imaging system were subject to a chemical exposure (1.5% ethanol). Embryo movement was videoed before (30 min), during (60 min) and after (60 min) exposure and SOF was then used to extract data on movement (angles of rotation and angular changes to the centre of mass of embryos). DFT was subsequently used to quantify the movement patterns exhibited during these periods and Multidimensional Scaling and ANOSIM were used to test for differences. Motion analysis revealed that zebrafish had significantly altered movements during both the second half of the alcohol exposure period and also the second half of the recovery period compared to their pre-treatment movements. Manual quantification of tail flicking revealed the same differences between exposure-periods as detected using the automated approach. However, the automated approach also incorporates other movements visible in the organism such as blood flow and heart beat, and has greater power to discern environmentally-driven changes in the behaviour and physiology of organisms. We suggest that combining these technologies could provide a highly efficient, high throughput assay, for assessing whole embryo responses to various drugs and chemicals.