Socio-Economics and Vegetation Change in Urban Ecosystems: Patterns in Space and Time

By 2050, 70% of the Earth’s human population will live in urban areas. Urbanization can have a devastating impact on local ecosystems, but these impacts vary across time and space. Identifying links between spatiotemporal change in urban ecosystems and neighborhood socio-economics is crucial to management aimed at maintaining flora and fauna in urban areas. Here, we tracked 20 years of socio-economic change and 15 years of vegetation change in 32 residential neighborhoods in south-eastern Australia. Regression models that explicitly accounted for a time lag between neighborhood socio-economic characteristics and vegetation response explained more variation in vegetation cover than models that ignored the effects of time. Also, relationships between vegetation and socio-economic factors were stronger in later years for the same neighborhoods suggesting the influence of socio-economics is more readily identified in established neighborhoods. Socio-economic variables alone, or in combination with biophysical variables, were better predictors of vegetation cover than only biophysical variables. Across space, vegetation cover had a negative quadratic relationship with neighborhood housing density, peaking at mid-density values, and a positive relationship with education level and immigration status (the percentage of residents with a non-Australian background). Over time, housing density had a positive relationship with vegetation cover, reflecting an increase in vegetation as neighborhoods develop. Our results highlight the need to understand temporal context when attempting to explain contemporary patterns in vegetation cover and the increasing importance of socio-economic factors in influencing cover as neighborhoods become established. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

What drives the positive correlation between human population density and bird species richness in Australia?

Aim To test six hypotheses that could explain or mediate the positive correlation between human population density (HPD) and bird species richness while controlling for biased sampling effort. These hypotheses were labelled as follows: productivity (net primary productivity, NPP); inherent heterogeneity (diversity of vegetation types); anthropogenic heterogeneity (diversity of land uses); conservation policy (proportion of conservation land); increased productivity (human‐induced productivity increases); and the reduced‐slope hypothesis (which predicts that humans have a negative impact on species numbers across the full range of variation in HPD). Location Australia. Methods All data were collected at a spatial resolution of 1° across mainland Australia. Bird species richness was from 2007 atlas data and random subsampling was used to account for biased sampling effort. HPD was from the 2006 census. All other data were from government produced geographic information system layers. The most important biotic or abiotic factors influencing patterns in both species richness and HPD were assessed using simultaneous autoregressive models and an information theoretic approach. Results NPP appeared to be one of the main factors driving spatial congruence between bird species richness and HPD. Inherent habitat heterogeneity was weakly related to richness and HPD, although an interaction between heterogeneity and NPP indicated that the former may be an important determinant of species richness in low‐productivity regions. There was little evidence that anthropogenic landscape heterogeneity or human‐induced changes in productivity influenced the relationship between species richness and HPD, but conservation policy appeared to act as an important mediating factor and species richness was positively related to the proportion of conservation land only in regions of high HPD. Main conclusions The spatial congruence between bird species richness and HPD occurs because both respond positively to productivity and, in certain circumstances, habitat heterogeneity. Our results suggest that conservation policy could mediate this relationship, but further research is required to determine the importance of conservation reserves in supporting species in regions densely populated by humans.     

Probing local environments of tryptophan residues in proteins: comparison of 19F nuclear magnetic resonance results with the intrinsic fluorescence of soluble human tissue factor

19F nuclear magnetic resonance (19F NMR) of 5-fluorotryptophan (5F-Trp) and tryptophan (Trp) fluorescence both provide information about local environment and solvent exposure of Trp residues. To compare the information provided by these spectroscopies, the four Trp residues in recombinant soluble human tissue factor (sTF) were replaced with 5F-Trp. 19F NMR assignments for the 5F-Trp residues (14, 25, 45, and 158) were based on comparison of the wild-type protein spectrum with the spectra of three single Trp-to-Phe replacement mutants. Previously we showed from fluorescence and absorption difference spectra of mutant versus wild-type sTF that the side chains of Trpl4 and Trp25 are buried, whereas those of Trp45 and Trp158 are partially exposed to bulk solvent (Hasselbacher et al., Biophys J 1995;69:20-29). 19F NMR paramagnetic broadening and solvent-induced isotope-shift experiments show that position 5 of the indole ring of 5F-Trp158 is exposed, whereas that of 5F-Trp45 is essentially inaccessible. Although 5F-Trp incorporation had no discernable effect on the procoagulant cofactor activity of either the wild-type or mutant proteins, 19F NMR chemical shifts showed that the single-Trp mutations are accompanied by subtle changes in the local environments of 5F-Trp residues residing in the same structural domain.     

A piezoelectric quartz crystal biosensor: the use of two single cysteine mutants of the periplasmic Escherichia coli glucose/galactose receptor as target proteins for the detection of glucose

We have examined the potential utility of a glucose biosensor that employs the glucose/galactose receptor of Escherichia coli with a quartz crystal microbalance (QCM). Two different genetically engineered mutant proteins were utilized, each involving the incorporation of a single cysteine into the amino acid sequence of the protein. The proteins were immobilized on the surface of a piezoelectric crystal by a direct sulfur-gold linkage. Since the cysteines were located at different positions in the sequence, the receptors attach to the surface with different orientations. Considering only mass effects, the target sugars for this receptor are predicted to be too small to be detectable with a QCM. However, our sensors indicated measurable and reproducible frequency responses when immobilized receptor was exposed to sugar. This unexpectedly large frequency response occurs because the protein film is transformed from a viscous layer to a more rigid nondissipative film. The QCM can detect these changes because of the direct linkage of the proteins to the surface. Calculations of the frequency response expected for a viscoelastic film with different rheological characteristics support this hypothesis. This study is significant because it illustrates a widened applicability for the QCM methodology to protein systems that bind small molecules and undergo ligand-induced conformational changes.     

(19)F NMR studies of the leucine-isoleucine-valine binding protein: evidence that a closed conformation exists in solution

The leucine-isoleucine-valine binding protein (LIV) found in the periplasmic space of E. coli has been used as a structural model for a number of neuronal receptors. This "venus fly trap" type protein has been characterized by crystallography in only the open form. Herein we have labeled LIV with 5-fluorotryptophan (5F-Trp) and difluoromethionine (DFM) in order to explore the structural dynamics of this protein and the application of DFM as a potential (19)F NMR structural probe for this family of proteins. Based on mass spectrometric analysis of the protein overproduced in the presence of DFM, approximately 30% of the five LIV methionine residues were randomly substituted with the fluorinated analog. Urea denaturation experiments imply a slight decrease in protein stability when DFM is incorporated into LIV. However, the fluorinated methionine did not alter leucine-binding activity upon its incorporation into the protein. Binding of L-leucine stabilizes both the unlabeled and DFM-labeled LIV, and induces the protein to adopt a three-state unfolding model in place of the two-state process observed for the free protein. The (19)F NMR spectrum of DFM-labeled LIV gave distinct resonances for the five Met residues found in LIV. 5F-Trp labeled LIV gave a well resolved spectrum for the three Trp residues. Trp to Phe mutants defined the resonances in the spectrum. The distinct narrowing in line width of the resonances when ligand was added identified the closed form of the protein.     

Neuroplasticity in the smooth muscle of the myenterically and extrinsically denervated rat jejunum

The objective of this study was to examine the effects of two different denervation procedures on the distribution of nerve fibers and neurotransmitter levels in the rat jejunum. Extrinsic nerves were eliminated by crushing the mesenteric pedicle to a segment of jejunum. The myenteric plexus and extrinsic nerves were eliminated by serosal application of the cationic surfactant benzyldimethyltetradecylammonium chloride (BAC). The effects of these two denervation procedures were evaluated at 15 and 45 days. The level of norepinephrine in whole segments of jejunum was initially reduced by more than 76% after both denervation procedures, but by 45 days the level of norepinephrine was the same as in control tissue. Tyrosine hydroxylase (nor-adrenergic nerve marker) immunostaining was absent at 15 days, but returned by 45 days. However, the pattern of noradrenergic innervating axons was altered in the segment deprived of myenteric neurons. Immunohistochemical studies showed protein gene product 9.5 (PGP 9.5)-immunoreactive fibers in whole-mount preparations of the circular smooth muscle in the absence of the myenteric plexus and extrinsic nerves. At 45 days, the number of nerve fibers in the circular smooth muscle increased. Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP)-immunoreactive fibers, a subset of the PGP 9.5 nerve fibers, were present in the circular smooth muscle at both time points examined. Choline acetyltransferase (CAT) activity and VIP and leucine enkephalin levels were measured in separated smooth muscle and submucosa-musosal layers of the denervated jejunum. VIP and leucine-enkephalin levels were no different from control in tissue that was extrinsically denervated alone. However, the levels of these peptides were elevated two-fold in the smooth muscle 15 and 45 days after myenteric and extrinsic denervation. In the submucosa-mucosa, VIP and leucine enkephalin levels also were elevated two-fold at 15 days, but comparable to control at 45 days. CAT activity was equal to control in the smooth muscle but elevated two-fold in the submucosa-mucosa at both times. These results provide evidence for innervation of the circular smooth muscle by the submucosal plexus. Moreover, these nerve fibers originating from the submucosal plexus proliferate in the absence of the myenteric plexus. Furthermore, the myenteric neurons appear to be essential for normal innervation of the smooth muscle by the sympathetic nerve fibers. It is speculated that the sprouting of the submucosal plexus induced by myenteric plexus ablation is mediated by increased production of trophic factors in the hyperplastic smooth muscle.     

Properties of Thermoactinomyces vulgaris phage Ta1 and its extracted DNA

The virulent phage Ta1 was obtained in good yields from infected cultures of Thermoactinomyces vulgaris 1227. The purified phage was found to sediment with a single band, the sedimentation constant being (519 +/- 14)S, and to exhibit a typical nucleoprotein behaviour in UV-spectrophotometric and CD experiments. The Ta1 phage consists of a hexagonal head about 0.056 micrometers in diameter and a very short tail. It is morphologically similar to the temperate Salmonella phage P22. The nucleic acid extracted from the phage was found to be a double-stranded linear DNA with a G+C content of 42 mole-% as deduced both from its melting temperature and buoyant density in CsCl. Analytical sedimentation revealed a high degree of molecular homogeneity of Ta1 Dna. the sedimentation constant of this DNA amounts to (35.9 +/- 0.3)S, corresponding to a DNA molecular weight of about 29 millions daltons. The biological activity of Ta1 DNA was indicated by its ability to infect the mycelium of the components T. vulgaris strain 1227 and to give rise to mature phages.     

DNA binding of the nonintercalative ligands SN-6132, SN-6131 and SN-6113: minor variations of the ligand structure may cause changes in the base pair preference.

The DNA binding selectivity of three ligands of a series of antitumor agents of bisquaternary ammonium heterocycles has been investigated by means of CD spectroscopy and melting measurements. From the spectroscopic results and binding data it is concluded that the agents SN-6132, SN-6131 and SN-6113 have relatively high affinity to AT base pair sequences whereas the binding to GC pairs is very low. The binding selectivity to AT base pair sequences decreases in the order netropsin > SN-6132 > SN-6113 > SN-6131. Poly(dA).poly(dT) has the highest binding preference for SN-6132 relative to that of SN-6131. The different binding behavior of the ligands is related to their distinct changes in the chemical structure and to the DNA minor groove properties which determines the adaptability of the ligands in the groove.     

Temperature-Sensitive, Assembly-Defective Flagella Mutants of CHLAMYDOMONAS REINHARDTII

We describe an efficient selection procedure for the isolation of mutants of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii with temperature sensitive flagella defects, with final yields of up to 11% of the population being mutant. Several mutants, all showing an inability to maintain flagellar integrity at the restrictive temperature, are described. We have examined flagellar stability and reassembly at various temperatures in the mutants. Mapping data are provided for these, as well as for some previously described mutants.     

High-risk pregnancy in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta): a case of ectopic, abdominal pregnancy with birth of a live, term infant, and a case of gestational diabetes complicated by pre-eclampsia

Background  Cases of abdominal pregnancy, in the form of intra-abdominal mummified fetuses, have been described in nonhuman primates. Gestational diabetes and pre-eclampsia are common pregnancy complications in women.
Methods  Two timed-bred rhesus monkeys had high-risk pregnancies, an abdominal pregnancy with delivery of a live term infant, and a case of gestational diabetes that later developed pre-eclampsia.
Results  The monkey that had abdominal pregnancy later died from septic peritonitis. The monkey had a colonic adenocarcinoma that may have allowed leakage of intestinal contents into the abdomen. Her infant was fostered to another female and survived. The monkey with gestational diabetes and pre-eclampsia was treated with a regimen similar to that used in women, and a live infant was delivered at day 157 of gestation by Caesarian section.
Conclusion  These cases underscore the value of timed-breeding and the similarities between pregnancy complications in women and in nonhuman primates.